BIBLES NET. COM
Dictionary]
Easton’s Bible Dictionary
Oreb – raven, a prince of Midian,
who, being defeated by Gideon and put to straits, was slain
along with Zeeb (Judg. 7:20-25). Many of the Midianites
perished along with him (Ps. 83:9; Isa. 10:26).
where Gideon slew Oreb after the defeat of the Midianites
(Judg. 7:25; Isa. 10:26). It was probably the place now
called Orbo, on the east of Jordan, near Bethshean.
Oren – ash or pine, the son of
Jerahmeel (1 Chr. 2:25).
instrument, probably a kind of Pan’s pipes (Gen. 4:21;
Job 21:12; Ps. 150:4), which consisted of seven or eight
reeds of unequal length.
“the fool”, the name of a constellation (Job 9:9;
38:31; Amos 5:8) consisting of about eighty stars. The
Vulgate renders thus, but the LXX. renders by Hesperus,
i.e., “the evening-star,” Venus. The Orientals
“appear to have conceived of this constellation under
the figure of an impious giant bound upon the sky.”
This giant was, according to tradition, Nimrod, the type of
the folly that contends against God. In Isa. 13:10 the
plural form of the Hebrew word is rendered
“constellations.”
Moabitess, the wife of Chilion (Ruth 1:4; 4:10). On the
death of her husband she accompanied Naomi, her
mother-in-law, part of the way to Bethlehem, and then
returned to Moab.
desolate and without protectors. The word occurs only here.
In John 14:18 the word there rendered
“comfortless” (R.V., “desolate;” marg.,
“orphans”) properly means “orphans.”
The same Greek word is rendered “fatherless” in
James 1:27.
unclean bird according to the Mosaic law (Lev. 11:13; Deut.
14:12); the fish-eating eagle (Pandion haliaetus); one of
the lesser eagles. But the Hebrew word may be taken to
denote the short-toed eagle (Circaetus gallicus of Southern
Europe), one of the most abundant of the eagle tribe found
in Palestine.
“break” or “crush”, the lammer-geier,
or bearded vulture, the largest of the whole vulture tribe.
It was an unclean bird (Lev. 11:13; Deut. 14:12). It is not
a gregarious bird, and is found but rarely in Palestine.
“When the other vultures have picked the flesh off any
animal, he comes in at the end of the feast, and swallows
the bones, or breaks them, and swallows the pieces if he
cannot otherwise extract the marrow. The bones he cracks
[hence the appropriateness of the name ossifrage, i.e.,
“bone-breaker”] by letting them fall on a rock
from a great height. He does not, however, confine himself
to these delicacies, but whenever he has an opportunity
will devour lambs, kids, or hares. These he generally
obtains by pushing them over cliffs, when he has watched
his opportunity; and he has been known to attack men while
climbing rocks, and dash them against the bottom. But
tortoises and serpents are his ordinary food…No doubt it
was a lammer-geier that mistook the bald head of the poet
AEschylus for a stone, and dropped on it the tortoise which
killed him” (Tristram’s Nat. Hist.).
rendering of Hebrew pl. enim; so called from its greediness
and gluttony. The allusion here is to the habit of the
ostrich with reference to its eggs, which is thus
described: “The outer layer of eggs is generally so
ill covered that they are destroyed in quantities by
jackals, wild-cats, etc., and that the natives carry them
away, only taking care not to leave the marks of their
footsteps, since, when the ostrich comes and finds that her
nest is discovered, she crushes the whole brood, and builds
a nest elsewhere.” In Job 39:13 this word in the
Authorized Version is the rendering of a Hebrew word
(notsah) which means “feathers,” as in the
Revised Version. In the same verse the word
“peacocks” of the Authorized Version is the
rendering of the Hebrew pl. renanim, properly meaning
“ostriches,” as in the Revised Version. (See OWL
¯T0002815 [1].)
Othni – a lion of Jehovah, a son
of Shemaiah, and one of the temple porters in the time of
David (1 Chr. 26:7). He was a “mighty man of
valour.”
Othniel – lion of God, the first
of the judges. His wife Achsah was the daughter of Caleb
(Josh. 15:16, 17; Judg. 1:13). He gained her hand as a
reward for his bravery in leading a successful expedition
against Debir (q.v.). Some thirty years after the death of
Joshua, the Israelites fell under the subjection of
Chushan-rishathaim (q.v.), the king of Mesopotamia. He
oppressed them for full eight years, when they
“cried” unto Jehovah, and Othniel was raised up
to be their deliverer. He was the younger brother of Caleb
(Judg. 3:8, 9-11). He is the only judge mentioned connected
with the tribe of Judah. Under him the land had rest forty
years.
denoting cavities or sockets in which gems were set (Ex.
28:11).
Oven – Heb. tannur, (Hos. 7:4).
In towns there appear to have been public ovens. There was
a street in Jerusalem (Jer. 37:21) called “bakers’
street” (the only case in which the name of a street
in Jerusalem is preserved). The words “tower of the
furnaces” (Neh. 3:11; 12:38) is more properly
“tower of the ovens” (Heb. tannurim). These
resemble the ovens in use among ourselves.
There were other private ovens of different kinds. Some
were like large jars made of earthenware or copper, which
were heated inside with wood (1 Kings 17:12; Isa. 44:15;
Jer. 7:18) or grass (Matt. 6:30), and when the fire had
burned out, small pieces of dough were placed inside or
spread in thin layers on the outside, and were thus baked.
Pits were also formed for the same purposes, and lined with
cement. These were used after the same manner.
Heated stones, or sand heated by a fire heaped over it, and
also flat irons pans, all served as ovens for the
preparation of bread. (See Gen. 18:6; 1 Kings 19:6.)
bath-haya’anah, “daughter of greediness” or
of “shouting.” In the list of unclean birds (Lev.
11:16; Deut. 14:15); also mentioned in Job 30:29; Isa.
13:21; 34:13; 43:20; Jer. 50:39; Micah 1:8. In all these
passages the Revised Version translates “ostrich”
(q.v.), which is the correct rendering.
(2.) Heb. yanshuph, rendered “great owl” in Lev.
11:17; Deut. 14:16, and “owl” in Isa. 34:11. This
is supposed to be the Egyptian eagle-owl (Bubo ascalaphus),
which takes the place of the eagle-owl (Bubo maximus) found
in Southern Europe. It is found frequenting the ruins of
Egypt and also of the Holy Land. “Its cry is a loud,
prolonged, and very powerful hoot. I know nothing which
more vividly brought to my mind the sense of desolation and
loneliness than the re-echoing hoot of two or three of
these great owls as I stood at midnight among the ruined
temples of Baalbek” (Tristram).
The LXX. and Vulgate render this word by “ibis”,
i.e., the Egyptian heron.
(3.) Heb. kos, rendered “little owl” in Lev.
11:17; Deut. 14:16, and “owl” in Ps. 102:6. The
Arabs call this bird “the mother of ruins.” It is
by far the most common of all the owls of Palestine. It is
the Athene persica, the bird of Minerva, the symbol of
ancient Athens.
(4.) Heb. kippoz, the “great owl” (Isa. 34:15);
Revised Version, “arrow-snake;” LXX. and Vulgate,
“hedgehog,” reading in the text, kippod, instead
of kippoz. There is no reason to doubt the correctness of
the rendering of the Authorized Version. Tristram says:
“The word [i.e., kippoz] is very possibly an imitation
of the cry of the scops owl (Scops giu), which is very
common among ruins, caves, and old walls of towns…It is a
migrant, returning to Palestine in spring.”
(5.) Heb. lilith, “screech owl” (Isa. 34:14,
marg. and R.V., “night monster”). The Hebrew word
is from a root signifying “night.” Some species
of the owl is obviously intended by this word. It may be
the hooting or tawny owl (Syrnium aluco), which is common
in Egypt and in many parts of Palestine. This verse in
Isaiah is “descriptive of utter and perpetual
desolation, of a land that should be full of ruins, and
inhabited by the animals that usually make such ruins their
abode.”
“cattle;” “neat cattle”, (Gen. 12:16;
34:28; Job 1:3, 14; 42:12, etc.); not to be muzzled when
treading the corn (Deut. 25:4). Referred to by our Lord in
his reproof to the Pharisees (Luke 13:15; 14:5).
Ox goad – mentioned only in Judg.
3:31, the weapon with which Shamgar (q.v.) slew six hundred
Philistines. “The ploughman still carries his goad, a
weapon apparently more fitted for the hand of the soldier
than the peaceful husbandman. The one I saw was of the
‘oak of Bashan,’ and measured upwards of ten feet
in length. At one end was an iron spear, and at the other a
piece of the same metal flattened. One can well understand
how a warrior might use such a weapon with effect in the
battle-field” (Porter’s Syria, etc.).
David’s brothers; the sixth son of Jesse (1 Chr.
2:15).
(2.) A son of Jerahmeel (1 Chr. 2:25).
Ozias – son of Joram (Matt. 1:8);
called also Uzziah (2 Kings 15:32, 34).
Ozni – hearing, one of the sons
of Gad; also called Ezbon (Gen. 46:16; Num. 26:16).
“the Arbite,” one of David’s heroes (2 Sam.
23:35); called also Naarai, 1 Chr. 11:37.
Padan – a plain, occurring only
in Gen. 48:7, where it designates Padan-aram.
Padan-aram – the plain of Aram,
or the plain of the highlands, (Gen. 25:20; 28:2, 5-7;
31:18, etc.), commonly regarded as the district of
Mesopotamia (q.v.) lying around Haran.
Pagiel – God allots, a prince of
the tribe of Asher (Num. 1:13), in the wilderness.
Pahath-moab – governor of Moab, a
person whose descendants returned from the Captivity and
assisted in rebuilding Jerusalem (Ezra 2:6; 8:4;
10:30).
face” (2 Kings 9:30); and the practice of painting the
face and the eyes seems to have been common (Jer. 4:30;
Ezek. 23:40). An allusion to this practice is found in the
name of Job’s daughter (42:14) Kerenhappuch (q.v.).
Paintings in the modern sense of the word were unknown to
the ancient Jews.
Palace – Used now only of royal
dwellings, although originally meaning simply (as the Latin
word palatium, from which it is derived, shows) a building
surrounded by a fence or a paling. In the Authorized
Version there are many different words so rendered,
presenting different ideas, such as that of citadel or
lofty fortress or royal residence (Neh. 1:1; Dan. 8:2). It
is the name given to the temple fortress (Neh. 2:8) and to
the temple itself (1 Chr. 29:1). It denotes also a spacious
building or a great house (Dan. 1:4; 4:4, 29: Esther 1:5;
7:7), and a fortified place or an enclosure (Ezek. 25:4).
Solomon’s palace is described in 1 Kings 7:1-12 as a
series of buildings rather than a single great structure.
Thirteen years were spent in their erection. This palace
stood on the eastern hill, adjoining the temple on the
south.
In the New Testament it designates the official residence
of Pilate or that of the high priest (Matt. 26:3, 58, 69;
Mark 14:54, 66; John 18:15). In Phil. 1:13 this word is the
rendering of the Greek praitorion, meaning the praetorian
cohorts at Rome (the life-guard of the Caesars). Paul was
continually chained to a soldier of that corps (Acts
28:16), and hence his name and sufferings became known in
all the praetorium. The “soldiers that kept” him
would, on relieving one another on guard, naturally spread
the tidings regarding him among their comrades. Some,
however, regard the praetroium (q.v.) as the barrack within
the palace (the palatium) of the Caesars in Rome where a
detachment of these praetorian guards was stationed, or as
the camp of the guards placed outside the eastern walls of
Rome.
“In the chambers which were occupied as
guard-rooms,” says Dr. Manning, “by the
praetorian troops on duty in the palace, a number of rude
caricatures are found roughly scratched upon the walls,
just such as may be seen upon barrack walls in every part
of the world. Amongst these is one of a human figure nailed
upon a cross. To add to the ‘offence of the cross,’
the crucified one is represented with the head of an
animal, probably that of an ass. Before it stands the
figure of a Roman legionary with one hand upraised in the
attitude of worship. Underneath is the rude, misspelt,
ungrammatical inscription, Alexamenos worships his god. It
can scarcely be doubted that we have here a contemporary
caricature, executed by one of the praetorian guard,
ridiculing the faith of a Christian comrade.”
Palestine – originally denoted
only the sea-coast of the land of Canaan inhabited by the
Philistines (Ex. 15:14; Isa. 14:29, 31; Joel 3:4), and in
this sense exclusively the Hebrew name Pelesheth (rendered
“Philistia” in Ps. 60:8; 83:7; 87:4; 108:9)
occurs in the Old Testament.
Not till a late period in Jewish history was this name used
to denote “the land of the Hebrews” in general
(Gen. 40:15). It is also called “the holy land”
(Zech. 2:12), the “land of Jehovah” (Hos. 9:3;
Ps. 85:1), the “land of promise” (Heb. 11:9),
because promised to Abraham (Gen. 12:7; 24:7), the
“land of Canaan” (Gen. 12:5), the “land of
Israel” (1 Sam. 13:19), and the “land of
Judah” (Isa. 19:17).
The territory promised as an inheritance to the seed of
Abraham (Gen. 15:18-21; Num. 34:1-12) was bounded on the
east by the river Euphrates, on the west by the
Mediterranean, on the north by the “entrance of
Hamath,” and on the south by the “river of
Egypt.” This extent of territory, about 60,000 square
miles, was at length conquered by David, and was ruled over
also by his son Solomon (2 Sam. 8; 1 Chr. 18; 1 Kings 4:1,
21). This vast empire was the Promised Land; but Palestine
was only a part of it, terminating in the north at the
southern extremity of the Lebanon range, and in the south
in the wilderness of Paran, thus extending in all to about
144 miles in length. Its average breadth was about 60 miles
from the Mediterranean on the west to beyond the Jordan. It
has fittingly been designated “the least of all
lands.” Western Palestine, on the south of Gaza, is
only about 40 miles in breadth from the Mediterranean to
the Dead Sea, narrowing gradually toward the north, where
it is only 20 miles from the sea-coast to the Jordan.
Palestine, “set in the midst” (Ezek. 5:5) of all
other lands, is the most remarkable country on the face of
the earth. No single country of such an extent has so great
a variety of climate, and hence also of plant and animal
life. Moses describes it as “a good land, a land of
brooks of water, of fountains and depths that spring out of
valleys and hills; a land of wheat, and barley, and vines,
and fig trees, and pomegranates; a land of oil olive, and
honey; a land wherein thou shalt not eat bread without
scarceness, thou shalt not lack any thing in it; a land
whose stones are iron, and out of whose hills thou mayest
dig brass” (Deut. 8:7-9).
“In the time of Christ the country looked, in all
probability, much as now. The whole land consists of
rounded limestone hills, fretted into countless stony
valleys, offering but rarely level tracts, of which
Esdraelon alone, below Nazareth, is large enough to be seen
on the map. The original woods had for ages disappeared,
though the slopes were dotted, as now, with figs, olives,
and other fruit-trees where there was any soil. Permanent
streams were even then unknown, the passing rush of winter
torrents being all that was seen among the hills. The
autumn and spring rains, caught in deep cisterns hewn out
like huge underground jars in the soft limestone, with
artificial mud-banked ponds still found near all villages,
furnished water. Hills now bare, or at best rough with
stunted growth, were then terraced, so as to grow vines,
olives, and grain. To-day almost desolate, the country then
teemed with population. Wine-presses cut in the rocks,
endless terraces, and the ruins of old vineyard towers are
now found amidst solitudes overgrown for ages with thorns
and thistles, or with wild shrubs and poor gnarled
scrub” (Geikie’s Life of Christ).
From an early period the land was inhabited by the
descendants of Canaan, who retained possession of the whole
land “from Sidon to Gaza” till the time of the
conquest by Joshua, when it was occupied by the twelve
tribes. Two tribes and a half had their allotments given
them by Moses on the east of the Jordan (Deut. 3:12-20;
comp. Num. 1:17-46; Josh. 4:12-13). The remaining tribes
had their portion on the west of Jordan.
From the conquest till the time of Saul, about four hundred
years, the people were governed by judges. For a period of
one hundred and twenty years the kingdom retained its unity
while it was ruled by Saul and David and Solomon. On the
death of Solomon, his son Rehoboam ascended the throne; but
his conduct was such that ten of the tribes revolted, and
formed an independent monarchy, called the kingdom of
Israel, or the northern kingdom, the capital of which was
first Shechem and afterwards Samaria. This kingdom was
destroyed. The Israelites were carried captive by
Shalmanezer, king of Assyria, B.C. 722, after an
independent existence of two hundred and fifty-three years.
The place of the captives carried away was supplied by
tribes brought from the east, and thus was formed the
Samaritan nation (2 Kings 17:24-29).
Nebuchadnezzar came up against the kingdom of the two
tribes, the kingdom of Judah, the capital of which was
Jerusalem, one hundred and thirty-four years after the
overthrow of the kingdom of Israel. He overthrew the city,
plundered the temple, and carried the people into captivity
to Babylon (B.C. 587), where they remained seventy years.
At the close of the period of the Captivity, they returned
to their own land, under the edict of Cyrus (Ezra 1:1-4).
They rebuilt the city and temple, and restored the old
Jewish commonwealth.
For a while after the Restoration the Jews were ruled by
Zerubbabel, Ezra, and Nehemiah, and afterwards by the high
priests, assisted by the Sanhedrin. After the death of
Alexander the Great at Babylon (B.C. 323), his vast empire
was divided between his four generals. Egypt, Arabia,
Palestine, and Coele-Syria fell to the lot of Ptolemy
Lagus. Ptolemy took possession of Palestine in B.C. 320,
and carried nearly one hundred thousand of the inhabitants
of Jerusalem into Egypt. He made Alexandria the capital of
his kingdom, and treated the Jews with consideration,
confirming them in the enjoyment of many privileges.
After suffering persecution at the hands of Ptolemy’s
successors, the Jews threw off the Egyptian yoke, and
became subject to Antiochus the Great, the king of Syria.
The cruelty and opression of the successors of Antiochus at
length led to the revolt under the Maccabees (B.C. 163),
when they threw off the Syrian yoke.
In the year B.C. 68, Palestine was reduced by Pompey the
Great to a Roman province. He laid the walls of the city in
ruins, and massacred some twelve thousand of the
inhabitants. He left the temple, however, unijured. About
twenty-five years after this the Jews revolted and cast off
the Roman yoke. They were however, subdued by Herod the
Great (q.v.). The city and the temple were destroyed, and
many of the inhabitants were put to death. About B.C. 20,
Herod proceeded to rebuild the city and restore the ruined
temple, which in about nine years and a half was so far
completed that the sacred services could be resumed in it
(comp. John 2:20). He was succeeded by his son Archelaus,
who was deprived of his power, however, by Augustus, A.D.
6, when Palestine became a Roman province, ruled by Roman
governors or procurators. Pontius Pilate was the fifth of
these procurators. He was appointed to his office A.D. 25.
Exclusive of Idumea, the kingdom of Herod the Great
comprehended the whole of the country originally divided
among the twelve tribes, which he divided into four
provinces or districts. This division was recognized so
long as Palestine was under the Roman dominion. These four
provinces were, (1) Judea, the southern portion of the
country; (2) Samaria, the middle province, the northern
boundary of which ran along the hills to the south of the
plain of Esdraelon; (3) Galilee, the northern province; and
(4) Peraea (a Greek name meaning the “opposite
country”), the country lying east of the Jordan and
the Dead Sea. This province was subdivided into these
districts, (1) Peraea proper, lying between the rivers
Arnon and Jabbok; (2) Galaaditis (Gilead); (3) Batanaea;
(4) Gaulonitis (Jaulan); (5) Ituraea or Auranitis, the
ancient Bashan; (6) Trachonitis; (7) Abilene; (8)
Decapolis, i.e., the region of the ten cities. The whole
territory of Palestine, including the portions alloted to
the trans-Jordan tribes, extended to about eleven thousand
square miles. Recent exploration has shown the territory on
the west of Jordan alone to be six thousand square miles in
extent, the size of the principality of Wales.
Pallu – separated, the second son
of Reuben (1 Chr. 5:3); called Phallu, Gen. 46:9. He was
the father of the Phalluites (Ex. 6:14; Num. 26:5, 8).
Palmer-worm – (Heb. gazam). The
English word may denote either a caterpillar (as rendered
by the LXX.), which wanders like a palmer or pilgrim, or
which travels like pilgrims in bands (Joel 1:4; 2:25), the
wingless locusts, or the migratory locust in its larva
state.
date-palm characteristic of Palestine. It is described as
“flourishing” (Ps. 92:12), tall (Cant. 7:7),
“upright” (Jer. 10:5). Its branches are a symbol
of victory (Rev. 7:9). “Rising with slender stem 40 or
50, at times even 80, feet aloft, its only branches, the
feathery, snow-like, pale-green fronds from 6 to 12 feet
long, bending from its top, the palm attracts the eye
wherever it is seen.” The whole land of Palestine was
called by the Greeks and Romans Phoenicia, i.e., “the
land of palms.” Tadmor in the desert was called by the
Greeks and Romans Palmyra, i.e., “the city of
palms.” The finest specimens of this tree grew at
Jericho (Deut. 34:3) and Engedi and along the banks of the
Jordan. Branches of the palm tree were carried at the feast
of Tabernacles (Lev. 23:40). At our Lord’s triumphal
entrance into Jerusalem the crowds took palm branches, and
went forth to meet him, crying, “Hosanna: Blessed is
the King of Israel that cometh in the name of the
Lord” (Matt. 21:8; John 12:13).
name given to Jericho (q.v.), Deut. 34:3; Judg. 1:16;
3:13.
“paralysis.” Many persons thus afflicted were
cured by our Lord (Matt. 4:24; 8:5-13; 9:2-7; Mark 2:3-11;
Luke 7:2-10; John 5:5-7) and the apostles (Acts 8:7; 9:33,
34).
Lord, one of the spies representing the tribe of Benjamin
(Num. 13:9).
Paltiel – deliverance of God, the
prince of Issachar who assisted “to divide the land by
inheritance” (Num. 34:26).
Paltite – the designation of one
of David’s heroes (2 Sam. 23:26); called also the
Pelonite (1 Chr. 11:27).
Pamphylia – Paul and his company,
loosing from Paphos, sailed north-west and came to Perga,
the capital of Pamphylia (Acts 13:13, 14), a province about
the middle of the southern sea-board of Asia Minor. It lay
between Lycia on the west and Cilicia on the east. There
were strangers from Pamphylia at Jerusalem on the day of
Pentecost (2:10).
earthenware used in culinary operations; a cooking-pan or
frying-pan frequently referred to in the Old Testament
(Lev. 2:5; 6:21; Num. 11:8; 1 Sam. 2:14, etc.).
The “ash-pans” mentioned in Ex. 27:3 were made of
copper, and were used in connection with the altar of
burnt-offering. The “iron pan” mentioned in Ezek.
4:3 (marg., “flat plate ” or “slice”)
was probably a mere plate of iron used for baking. The
“fire-pans” of Ex. 27:3 were fire-shovels used
for taking up coals. The same Hebrew word is rendered
“snuff-dishes” (25:38; 37:23) and
“censers” (Lev. 10:1; 16:12; Num. 4:14, etc.).
These were probably simply metal vessels employed for
carrying burning embers from the brazen altar to the altar
of incense.
The “frying-pan” mentioned in Lev. 2:7; 7:9 was a
pot for boiling.
R.V., “perhaps a kind of confection”) the Jews
explain as the name of a kind of sweet pastry. Others take
it as the name of some place, identifying it with Pingi, on
the road between Damascus and Baalbec. “Pannaga”
is the Sanscrit name of an aromatic plant (comp. Gen.
43:11).
Authorized Version (Isa. 19:7), “the paper reeds by
the brooks,” is in the Revised Version more correctly
“the meadows by the Nile.” The words undoubtedly
refer to a grassy place on the banks of the Nile fit for
pasturage.
In 2 John 1:12 the word is used in its proper sense. The
material so referred to was manufactured from the papyrus,
and hence its name. The papyrus (Heb. gome) was a kind of
bulrush (q.v.). It is mentioned by Job (8:11) and Isaiah
(35:7). It was used for many purposes. This plant (Papyrus
Nilotica) is now unknown in Egypt; no trace of it can be
found. The unaccountable disappearance of this plant from
Egypt was foretold by Isaiah (19:6, 7) as a part of the
divine judgment on that land. The most extensive papyrus
growths now known are in the marshes at the northern end of
the lake of Merom.
island of Cyprus, and therefore the residence of the Roman
governor. It was visited by Paul and Barnabas on their
first missionary tour (Acts 13:6). It is new Paphos which
is here meant. It lay on the west coast of the island,
about 8 miles north of old Paphos. Its modern name is
Baffa.
placing beside; a comparison; equivalent to the Heb.
mashal, a similitude. In the Old Testament this is used to
denote (1) a proverb (1 Sam. 10:12; 24:13; 2 Chr. 7:20),
(2) a prophetic utterance (Num. 23:7; Ezek. 20:49), (3) an
enigmatic saying (Ps. 78:2; Prov. 1:6). In the New
Testament, (1) a proverb (Mark 7:17; Luke 4:23), (2) a
typical emblem (Heb. 9:9; 11:19), (3) a similitude or
allegory (Matt. 15:15; 24:32; Mark 3:23; Luke 5:36; 14:7);
(4) ordinarily, in a more restricted sense, a comparison of
earthly with heavenly things, “an earthly story with a
heavenly meaning,” as in the parables of our Lord.
Instruction by parables has been in use from the earliest
times. A large portion of our Lord’s public teaching
consisted of parables. He himself explains his reasons for
this in his answer to the inquiry of the disciples,
“Why speakest thou to them in parables?” (Matt.
13:13-15; Mark 4:11, 12; Luke 8:9, 10). He followed in so
doing the rule of the divine procedures, as recorded in
Matt. 13:13.
The parables uttered by our Lord are all recorded in the
synoptical (i.e., the first three) Gospels. The fourth
Gospel contains no parable properly so called, although the
illustration of the good shepherd (John 10:1-16) has all
the essential features of a parable. (See List of Parables
in Appendix.)
(pardes), properly meaning a “pleasure-ground” or
“park” or “king’s garden.” It came in course of time to be used as a name
for the world of happiness and rest hereafter (Luke 23:43;
2 Cor. 12:4; Rev. 2:7). For “garden” in Gen. 2:8
the LXX. has “paradise.”
Benjamin (Josh. 18:23), supposed to be identical with the
ruins called Far’ah, about 6 miles north-east of
Jerusalem, in the Wady Far’ah, which is a branch of the
Wady Kelt.
Paran – abounding in foliage, or
abounding in caverns, (Gen. 21:21), a desert tract forming
the north-eastern division of the peninsula of Sinai, lying
between the ‘Arabah on the east and the wilderness of
Shur on the west. It is intersected in a north-western
direction by the Wady el-‘Arish. It bears the modern
name of Badiet et-Tih, i.e., “the desert of the
wanderings.” This district, through which the children
of Israel wandered, lay three days’ march from Sinai
(Num. 10:12, 33). From Kadesh, in this wilderness, spies
(q.v.) were sent to spy the land (13:3, 26). Here, long
afterwards, David found refuge from Saul (1 Sam. 25:1,
4).
Paran, Mount – probably the hilly
region or upland wilderness on the north of the desert of
Paran forming the southern boundary of the Promised Land
(Deut. 33:2; Hab. 3:3).
Parbar – (1 Chr. 26:18), a place
apparently connected with the temple, probably a
“suburb” (q.v.), as the word is rendered in 2
Kings 23:11; a space between the temple wall and the wall
of the court; an open portico into which the chambers of
the official persons opened (1 Chr. 26:18).
Heb. sharab, a “mirage”, a phenomenon caused by
the refraction of the rays of the sun on the glowing sands
of the desert, causing them suddenly to assume the
appearance of a beautiful lake. It is called by the modern
Arabs by the same Hebrew name serab.
Parchment – a skin prepared for
writing on; so called from Pergamos (q.v.), where this was
first done (2 Tim. 4:13).
Pardon – the forgiveness of sins
granted freely (Isa. 43:25), readily (Neh. 9:17; Ps. 86:5),
abundantly (Isa. 55:7; Rom. 5:20). Pardon is an act of a
sovereign, in pure sovereignty, granting simply a remission
of the penalty due to sin, but securing neither honour nor
reward to the pardoned. Justification (q.v.), on the other
hand, is the act of a judge, and not of a sovereign, and
includes pardon and, at the same time, a title to all the
rewards and blessings promised in the covenant of life.
Parlour – (from the Fr. parler,
“to speak”) denotes an “audience
chamber,” but that is not the import of the Hebrew
word so rendered. It corresponds to what the Turks call a
kiosk, as in Judg. 3:20 (the “summer parlour”),
or as in the margin of the Revised Version (“the upper
chamber of cooling”), a small room built on the roof
of the house, with open windows to catch the breeze, and
having a door communicating with the outside by which
persons seeking an audience may be admitted. While Eglon
was resting in such a parlour, Ehud, under pretence of
having a message from God to him, was admitted into his
presence, and murderously plunged his dagger into his body
(21, 22).
The “inner parlours” in 1 Chr. 28:11 were the
small rooms or chambers which Solomon built all round two
sides and one end of the temple (1 Kings 6:5), “side
chambers;” or they may have been, as some think, the
porch and the holy place.
In 1 Sam. 9:22 the Revised Version reads “guest
chamber,” a chamber at the high place specially used
for sacrificial feasts.
Parmashta – strong-fisted, a son
of Haman, slain in Shushan (Esther 9:9).
Parmenas – constant, one of the
seven “deacons” (Acts 6:5).
Parshandatha – an interpreter of
the law, the eldest of Haman’s sons, slain in Shushan
(Esther 9:7).
Jerusalem at Pentecost (Acts 2:9). Parthia lay on the east
of Media and south of Hyrcania, which separated it from the
Caspian Sea. It corresponded with the western half of the
modern Khorasan, and now forms a part of Persia.
“caller”). This bird, unlike our own partridge,
is distinguished by “its ringing call-note, which in
early morning echoes from cliff to cliff amidst the
barrenness of the wilderness of Judea and the glens of the
forest of Carmel” hence its Hebrew name. This name
occurs only twice in Scripture.
In 1 Sam. 26:20 “David alludes to the mode of chase
practised now, as of old, when the partridge, continuously
chased, was at length, when fatigued, knocked down by
sticks thrown along the ground.” It endeavours to save
itself “by running, in preference to flight, unless
when suddenly started. It is not an inhabitant of the plain
or the corn-field, but of rocky hill-sides”
(Tristram’s Nat. Hist.).
In Jer. 17:11 the prophet is illustrating the fact that
riches unlawfully acquired are precarious and short-lived.
The exact nature of the illustration cannot be precisely
determined. Some interpret the words as meaning that the
covetous man will be as surely disappointed as the
partridge which gathers in eggs, not of her own laying, and
is unable to hatch them; others (Tristram), with more
probability, as denoting that the man who enriches himself
by unjust means “will as surely be disappointed as the
partridge which commences to sit, but is speedily robbed of
her hopes of a brood” by her eggs being stolen away
from her.
The commonest partridge in Palestine is the Caccabis
saxatilis, the Greek partridge. The partridge of the
wilderness (Ammo-perdix heyi) is a smaller species. Both
are essentially mountain and rock birds, thus differing
from the English partridge, which loves cultivated fields.
Paruah – flourishing, the father
of Jehoshaphat, appointed to provide monthly supplies for
Solomon from the tribe of Issachar (1 Kings 4:17).
Parvaim – the name of a country
from which Solomon obtained gold for the temple (2 Chr.
3:6). Some have identified it with Ophir, but it is
uncertain whether it is even the name of a place. It may
simply, as some think, denote “Oriental
regions.”
sons of Japhlet, of the tribe of Asher (1 Chr. 7:33).
Pas-dammim – the border of blood
= Ephes-dammim (q.v.), between Shochoh and Azekah (1 Sam.
17:1; 1 Chr. 11:13).
Pashur – release. (1.) The son of
Immer (probably the same as Amariah, Neh. 10:3; 12:2), the
head of one of the priestly courses, was “chief
governor [Heb. paqid nagid, meaning “deputy
governor”] of the temple” (Jer. 20:1, 2). At this
time the nagid, or “governor,” of the
temple was Seraiah the high priest (1 Chr. 6:14), and
Pashur was his paqid, or “deputy.” Enraged
at the plainness with which Jeremiah uttered his solemn
warnings of coming judgements, because of the abounding
iniquity of the times, Pashur ordered the temple police to
seize him, and after inflicting on him corporal punishment
(forty stripes save one, Deut. 25:3; comp. 2 Cor. 11:24),
to put him in the stocks in the high gate of Benjamin,
where he remained all night. On being set free in the
morning, Jeremiah went to Pashur (Jer. 20:3, 5), and
announced to him that God had changed his name to
Magor-missabib, i.e., “terror on every side.” The
punishment that fell upon him was probably remorse, when he
saw the ruin he had brought upon his country by advising a
close alliance with Egypt in opposition to the counsels of
Jeremiah (20:4-6). He was carried captive to Babylon, and
died there.
(2.) A priest sent by king Zedekiah to Jeremiah to inquire
of the Lord (1 Chr. 24:9; Jer. 21:1; 38:1-6). He advised
that the prophet should be put to death.
(3.) The father of Gedaliah. He was probably the same as
(1).
Passage – denotes in Josh. 22:11,
as is generally understood, the place where the children of
Israel passed over Jordan. The words “the passage
of” are, however, more correctly rendered “by the
side of,” or “at the other side of,” thus
designating the position of the great altar erected by the
eastern tribes on their return home. This word also
designates the fords of the Jordan to the south of the Sea
of Galilee (Judg. 12:5, 6), and a pass or rocky defile (1
Sam. 13:23; 14:4). “Passages” in Jer. 22:20 is in
the Revised Version more correctly “Abarim”
(q.v.), a proper name.
Acts 1:3, meaning suffering, referring to the sufferings of
our Lord.
Passover – the name given to the
chief of the three great historical annual festivals of the
Jews. It was kept in remembrance of the Lord’s passing
over the houses of the Israelites (Ex. 12:13) when the
first born of all the Egyptians were destroyed. It is
called also the “feast of unleavened bread” (Ex.
23:15; Mark 14:1; Acts 12:3), because during its
celebration no leavened bread was to be eaten or even kept
in the household (Ex. 12:15). The word afterwards came to
denote the lamb that was slain at the feast (Mark 14:12-14;
1 Cor. 5:7).
A detailed account of the institution of this feast is
given in Ex. 12 and 13. It was afterwards incorporated in
the ceremonial law (Lev. 23:4-8) as one of the great
festivals of the nation. In after times many changes seem
to have taken place as to the mode of its celebration as
compared with its first celebration (comp. Deut. 16:2, 5,
6; 2 Chr. 30:16; Lev. 23:10-14; Num. 9:10, 11; 28:16-24).
Again, the use of wine (Luke 22:17, 20), of sauce with the
bitter herbs (John 13:26), and the service of praise were
introduced.
There is recorded only one celebration of this feast
between the Exodus and the entrance into Canaan, namely,
that mentioned in Num. 9:5. It was primarily a commemorative ordinance,
reminding the children of Israel of their deliverance out
of Egypt; but it was, no doubt, also a type of the great
deliverance wrought by the Messiah for all his people from
the doom of death on account of sin, and from the bondage
of sin itself, a worse than Egyptian bondage (1 Cor. 5:7;
John 1:29; 19:32-36; 1 Pet. 1:19; Gal. 4:4, 5). The
appearance of Jerusalem on the occasion of the Passover in
the time of our Lord is thus fittingly described: “The
city itself and the neighbourhood became more and more
crowded as the feast approached, the narrow streets and
dark arched bazaars showing the same throng of men of all
nations as when Jesus had first visited Jerusalem as a boy.
Even the temple offered a strange sight at this season, for
in parts of the outer courts a wide space was covered with
pens for sheep, goats, and cattle to be used for offerings.
Sellers shouted the merits of their beasts, sheep bleated,
oxen lowed. Sellers of doves also had a place set apart for
them. Potters offered a choice from huge stacks of clay
dishes and ovens for roasting and eating the Passover lamb.
Booths for wine, oil, salt, and all else needed for
sacrifices invited customers. Persons going to and from the
city shortened their journey by crossing the temple
grounds, often carrying burdens…Stalls to change foreign
money into the shekel of the temple, which alone could be
paid to the priests, were numerous, the whole confusion
making the sanctuary like a noisy market”
(Geikie’s Life of Christ).
Patara – a city on the south-west
coast of Lycia at which Paul landed on his return from his
third missionary journey (Acts 21:1, 2). Here he found a
larger vessel, which was about to sail across the open sea
to the coast of Phoenicia. In this vessel he set forth, and
reached the city of Tyre in perhaps two or three days.
given to Upper Egypt (the Thebaid of the Greeks), as
distinguished from Matsor, or Lower Egypt (Isa. 11:11; Jer.
44:1, 15; Ezek. 30:14), the two forming Mizraim. After the
destruction of Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar, colonies of
Jews settled “in the country of Pathros” and
other parts of Egypt.
Patmos – a small rocky and barren
island, one of the group called the “Sporades,”
in the AEgean Sea. It is mentioned in Scripture only in
Rev. 1:9. It was on this island, to which John was banished
by the emperor Domitian (A.D. 95), that he received from
God the wondrous revelation recorded in his book. This has
naturally invested it with the deepest interest for all
time. It is now called Patmo.
Patriarch – a name employed in
the New Testament with reference to Abraham (Heb. 7:4), the
sons of Jacob (Acts 7:8, 9), and to David (2:29). This name
is generally applied to the progenitors of families or
“heads of the fathers” (Josh. 14:1) mentioned in
Scripture, and they are spoken of as antediluvian (from
Adam to Noah) and post-diluvian (from Noah to Jacob)
patriachs. But the expression “the patriarch,” by
way of eminence, is applied to the twelve sons of Jacob, or
to Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob.
“Patriachal longevity presents itself as one of the
most striking of the facts concerning mankind which the
early history of the Book of Genesis places before
us…There is a large amount of consentient tradition to
the effect that the life of man was originally far more
prolonged than it is at present, extending to at least
several hundred years. The Babylonians, Egyptians, and
Chinese exaggerated these hundreds into thousands. The
Greeks and Romans, with more moderation, limited human life
within a thousand or eight hundred years. The Hindus still
farther shortened the term. Their books taught that in the
first age of the world man was free from diseases, and
lived ordinarily four hundred years; in the second age the
term of life was reduced from four hundred to three
hundred; in the third it became two hundred; in the fourth
and last it was brought down to one hundred”
(Rawlinson’s Historical Illustrations).
Patrobas – a Christian at Rome to
whom Paul sent salutations (Rom. 16:14).
Pau – (Gen. 36:39) or Pai (1 Chr.
1:50), bleating, an Edomitish city ruled over by Hadar.
about the same time as our Lord. His circumcision-name was
Saul, and probably the name Paul was also given to him in
infancy “for use in the Gentile world,” as
“Saul” would be his Hebrew home-name. He was a
native of Tarsus, the capital of Cilicia, a Roman province
in the south-east of Asia Minor. That city stood on the
banks of the river Cydnus, which was navigable thus far;
hence it became a centre of extensive commercial traffic
with many countries along the shores of the Mediterranean,
as well as with the countries of central Asia Minor. It
thus became a city distinguished for the wealth of its
inhabitants.
Tarsus was also the seat of a famous university, higher in
reputation even than the universities of Athens and
Alexandria, the only others that then existed. Here Saul
was born, and here he spent his youth, doubtless enjoying
the best education his native city could afford. His father
was of the straitest sect of the Jews, a Pharisee, of the
tribe of Benjamin, of pure and unmixed Jewish blood (Acts
23:6; Phil. 3:5). We learn nothing regarding his mother;
but there is reason to conclude that she was a pious woman,
and that, like-minded with her husband, she exercised all a
mother influence in moulding the character of her son, so
that he could afterwards speak of himself as being, from
his youth up, “touching the righteousness which is in
the law, blameless” (Phil. 3:6).
We read of his sister and his sister’s son (Acts
23:16), and of other relatives (Rom. 16:7, 11, 12). Though
a Jew, his father was a Roman citizen. How he obtained this
privilege we are not informed. “It might be bought, or
won by distinguished service to the state, or acquired in
several other ways; at all events, his son was freeborn. It
was a valuable privilege, and one that was to prove of
great use to Paul, although not in the way in which his
father might have been expected to desire him to make use
of it.” Perhaps the most natural career for the youth
to follow was that of a merchant. “But it was decided
that…he should go to college and become a rabbi, that is,
a minister, a teacher, and a lawyer all in one.”
According to Jewish custom, however, he learned a trade
before entering on the more direct preparation for the
sacred profession. The trade he acquired was the making of
tents from goats’ hair cloth, a trade which was one of
the commonest in Tarsus.
His preliminary education having been completed, Saul was
sent, when about thirteen years of age probably, to the
great Jewish school of sacred learning at Jerusalem as a
student of the law. Here he became a pupil of the
celebrated rabbi Gamaliel, and here he spent many years in
an elaborate study of the Scriptures and of the many
questions concerning them with which the rabbis exercised
themselves. During these years of diligent study he lived
“in all good conscience,” unstained by the vices
of that great city.
After the period of his student-life expired, he probably
left Jerusalem for Tarsus, where he may have been engaged
in connection with some synagogue for some years. But we
find him back again at Jerusalem very soon after the death
of our Lord. Here he now learned the particulars regarding
the crucifixion, and the rise of the new sect of the
“Nazarenes.”
For some two years after Pentecost, Christianity was
quietly spreading its influence in Jerusalem. At length
Stephen, one of the seven deacons, gave forth more public
and aggressive testimony that Jesus was the Messiah, and
this led to much excitement among the Jews and much
disputation in their synagogues. Persecution arose against
Stephen and the followers of Christ generally, in which
Saul of Tarsus took a prominent part. He was at this time
probably a member of the great Sanhedrin, and became the
active leader in the furious persecution by which the
rulers then sought to exterminate Christianity.
But the object of this persecution also failed. “They
that were scattered abroad went everywhere preaching the
word.” The anger of the persecutor was thereby kindled
into a fiercer flame. Hearing that fugitives had taken
refuge in Damascus, he obtained from the chief priest
letters authorizing him to proceed thither on his
persecuting career. This was a long journey of about 130
miles, which would occupy perhaps six days, during which,
with his few attendants, he steadily went onward,
“breathing out threatenings and slaughter.” But
the crisis of his life was at hand. He had reached the last
stage of his journey, and was within sight of Damascus. As
he and his companions rode on, suddenly at mid-day a
brilliant light shone round them, and Saul was laid
prostrate in terror on the ground, a voice sounding in his
ears, “Saul, Saul, why persecutest thou me?” The
risen Saviour was there, clothed in the vesture of his
glorified humanity. In answer to the anxious inquiry of the
stricken persecutor, “Who art thou, Lord?” he
said, “I am Jesus whom thou persecutest” (Acts
9:5; 22:8; 26:15).
This was the moment of his conversion, the most solemn in
all his life. Blinded by the dazzling light (Acts 9:8), his
companions led him into the city, where, absorbed in deep
thought for three days, he neither ate nor drank (9:11).
Ananias, a disciple living in Damascus, was informed by a
vision of the change that had happened to Saul, and was
sent to him to open his eyes and admit him by baptism into
the Christian church (9:11-16). The whole purpose of his
life was now permanently changed.
Immediately after his conversion he retired into the
solitudes of Arabia (Gal. 1:17), perhaps of “Sinai in
Arabia,” for the purpose, probably, of devout study
and meditation on the marvellous revelation that had been
made to him. “A veil of thick darkness hangs over this
visit to Arabia. Of the scenes among which he moved, of the
thoughts and occupations which engaged him while there, of
all the circumstances of a crisis which must have shaped
the whole tenor of his after-life, absolutely nothing is
known. ‘Immediately,’ says St. Paul, ‘I went
away into Arabia.’ The historian passes over the
incident [comp. Acts 9:23 and 1 Kings 11:38, 39]. It is a
mysterious pause, a moment of suspense, in the
apostle’s history, a breathless calm, which ushers in
the tumultuous storm of his active missionary life.”
Coming back, after three years, to Damascus, he began to
preach the gospel “boldly in the name of Jesus”
(Acts 9:27), but was soon obliged to flee (9:25; 2 Cor.
11:33) from the Jews and betake himself to Jerusalem. Here
he tarried for three weeks, but was again forced to flee
(Acts 9:28, 29) from persecution. He now returned to his
native Tarsus (Gal. 1:21), where, for probably about three
years, we lose sight of him. The time had not yet come for
his entering on his great life-work of preaching the gospel
to the Gentiles.
At length the city of Antioch, the capital of Syria, became
the scene of great Christian activity. There the gospel
gained a firm footing, and the cause of Christ prospered.
Barnabas (q.v.), who had been sent from Jerusalem to
superintend the work at Antioch, found it too much for him,
and remembering Saul, he set out to Tarsus to seek for him.
He readily responded to the call thus addressed to him, and
came down to Antioch, which for “a whole year”
became the scene of his labours, which were crowned with
great success. The disciples now, for the first time, were
called “Christians” (Acts 11:26).
The church at Antioch now proposed to send out missionaries
to the Gentiles, and Saul and Barnabas, with John Mark as
their attendant, were chosen for this work. This was a
great epoch in the history of the church. Now the disciples
began to give effect to the Master’s command: “Go
ye into all the world, and preach the gospel to every
creature.”
The three missionaries went forth on the first missionary
tour. They sailed from Seleucia, the seaport of Antioch,
across to Cyprus, some 80 miles to the south-west. Here at
Paphos, Sergius Paulus, the Roman proconsul, was converted,
and now Saul took the lead, and was ever afterwards called
Paul. The missionaries now crossed to the mainland, and
then proceeded 6 or 7 miles up the river Cestrus to Perga
(Acts 13:13), where John Mark deserted the work and
returned to Jerusalem. The two then proceeded about 100
miles inland, passing through Pamphylia, Pisidia, and
Lycaonia. The towns mentioned in this tour are the Pisidian
Antioch, where Paul delivered his first address of which we
have any record (13:16-51; comp. 10:30-43), Iconium,
Lystra, and Derbe. They returned by the same route to see
and encourage the converts they had made, and ordain elders
in every city to watch over the churches which had been
gathered. From Perga they sailed direct for Antioch, from
which they had set out.
After remaining “a long time”, probably till A.D.
50 or 51, in Antioch, a great controversy broke out in the
church there regarding the relation of the Gentiles to the
Mosaic law. For the purpose of obtaining a settlement of
this question, Paul and Barnabas were sent as deputies to
consult the church at Jerusalem. The council or synod which
was there held (Acts 15) decided against the Judaizing
party; and the deputies, accompanied by Judas and Silas,
returned to Antioch, bringing with them the decree of the
council.
After a short rest at Antioch, Paul said to Barnabas:
“Let us go again and visit our brethren in every city
where we have preached the word of the Lord, and see how
they do.” Mark proposed again to accompany them; but
Paul refused to allow him to go. Barnabas was resolved to
take Mark, and thus he and Paul had a sharp contention.
They separated, and never again met. Paul, however,
afterwards speaks with honour of Barnabas, and sends for
Mark to come to him at Rome (Col. 4:10; 2 Tim. 4:11).
Paul took with him Silas, instead of Barnabas, and began
his second missionary journey about A.D. 51. This time he
went by land, revisiting the churches he had already
founded in Asia. But he longed to enter into “regions
beyond,” and still went forward through Phrygia and
Galatia (16:6). Contrary to his intention, he was
constrained to linger in Galatia (q.v.), on account of some
bodily affliction (Gal. 4:13, 14). Bithynia, a populous
province on the shore of the Black Sea, lay now before him,
and he wished to enter it; but the way was shut, the Spirit
in some manner guiding him in another direction, till he
came down to the shores of the AEgean and arrived at Troas,
on the north-western coast of Asia Minor (Acts 16:8). Of
this long journey from Antioch to Troas we have no account
except some references to it in his Epistle to the
Galatians (4:13).
As he waited at Troas for indications of the will of God as
to his future movements, he saw, in the vision of the
night, a man from the opposite shores of Macedonia standing
before him, and heard him cry, “Come over, and help
us” (Acts 16:9). Paul recognized in this vision a
message from the Lord, and the very next day set sail
across the Hellespont, which separated him from Europe, and
carried the tidings of the gospel into the Western world.
In Macedonia, churches were planted in Philippi,
Thessalonica, and Berea. Leaving this province, Paul passed
into Achaia, “the paradise of genius and renown.”
He reached Athens, but quitted it after, probably, a brief
sojourn (17:17-31). The Athenians had received him with
cold disdain, and he never visited that city again. He
passed over to Corinth, the seat of the Roman government of
Achaia, and remained there a year and a half, labouring
with much success. While at Corinth, he wrote his two
epistles to the church of Thessalonica, his earliest
apostolic letters, and then sailed for Syria, that he might
be in time to keep the feast of Pentecost at Jerusalem. He
was accompanied by Aquila and Priscilla, whom he left at
Ephesus, at which he touched, after a voyage of thirteen or
fifteen days. He landed at Caesarea, and went up to
Jerusalem, and having “saluted the church” there,
and kept the feast, he left for Antioch, where he abode
“some time” (Acts 18:20-23).
He then began his third missionary tour. He journeyed by
land in the “upper coasts” (the more eastern
parts) of Asia Minor, and at length made his way to
Ephesus, where he tarried for no less than three years,
engaged in ceaseless Christian labour. “This city was
at the time the Liverpool of the Mediterranean. It
possessed a splendid harbour, in which was concentrated the
traffic of the sea which was then the highway of the
nations; and as Liverpool has behind her the great towns of
Lancashire, so had Ephesus behind and around her such
cities as those mentioned along with her in the epistles to
the churches in the book of Revelation, Smyrna, Pergamos,
Thyatira, Sardis, Philadelphia, and Laodicea. It was a city
of vast wealth, and it was given over to every kind of
pleasure, the fame of its theatres and race-course being
world-wide” (Stalker’s Life of St. Paul). Here a
“great door and effectual” was opened to the
apostle. His fellow-labourers aided him in his work,
carrying the gospel to Colosse and Laodicea and other
places which they could reach.
Very shortly before his departure from Ephesus, the apostle
wrote his First Epistle to the Corinthians (q.v.). The
silversmiths, whose traffic in the little images which they
made was in danger (see DEMETRIUS ¯T0001013),
organized a riot against Paul, and he left the city, and
proceeded to Troas (2 Cor. 2:12), whence after some time he
went to meet Titus in Macedonia. Here, in consequence of
the report Titus brought from Corinth, he wrote his second
epistle to that church. Having spent probably most of the
summer and autumn in Macedonia, visiting the churches
there, specially the churches of Philippi, Thessalonica,
and Berea, probably penetrating into the interior, to the
shores of the Adriatic (Rom. 15:19), he then came into
Greece, where he abode three month, spending probably the
greater part of this time in Corinth (Acts 20:2). During
his stay in this city he wrote his Epistle to the
Galatians, and also the great Epistle to the Romans. At the
end of the three months he left Achaia for Macedonia,
thence crossed into Asia Minor, and touching at Miletus,
there addressed the Ephesian presbyters, whom he had sent
for to meet him (Acts 20:17), and then sailed for Tyre,
finally reaching Jerusalem, probably in the spring of A.D.
58.
While at Jerusalem, at the feast of Pentecost, he was
almost murdered by a Jewish mob in the temple. (See TEMPLE,
HEROD’S ¯T0003611.) Rescued from their violence by
the Roman commandant, he was conveyed as a prisoner to
Caesarea, where, from various causes, he was detained a
prisoner for two years in Herod’s praetorium (Acts
23:35). “Paul was not kept in close confinement; he
had at least the range of the barracks in which he was
detained. There we can imagine him pacing the ramparts on
the edge of the Mediterranean, and gazing wistfully across
the blue waters in the direction of Macedonia, Achaia, and
Ephesus, where his spiritual children were pining for him,
or perhaps encountering dangers in which they sorely needed
his presence. It was a mysterious providence which thus
arrested his energies and condemned the ardent worker to
inactivity; yet we can now see the reason for it. Paul was
needing rest. After twenty years of incessant
evangelization, he required leisure to garner the harvest
of experience…During these two years he wrote nothing; it
was a time of internal mental activity and silent
progress” (Stalker’s Life of St. Paul).
At the end of these two years Felix (q.v.) was succeeded in
the governorship of Palestine by Porcius Festus, before
whom the apostle was again heard. But judging it right at
this crisis to claim the privilege of a Roman citizen, he
appealed to the emperor (Acts 25:11). Such an appeal could
not be disregarded, and Paul was at once sent on to Rome
under the charge of one Julius, a centurion of the
“Augustan cohort.” After a long and perilous
voyage, he at length reached the imperial city in the early
spring, probably, of A.D. 61. Here he was permitted to
occupy his own hired house, under constant military
custody. This privilege was accorded to him, no doubt,
because he was a Roman citizen, and as such could not be
put into prison without a trial. The soldiers who kept
guard over Paul were of course changed at frequent
intervals, and thus he had the opportunity of preaching the
gospel to many of them during these “two whole
years,” and with the blessed result of spreading among
the imperial guards, and even in Caesar’s household, an
interest in the truth (Phil. 1:13). His rooms were resorted
to by many anxious inquirers, both Jews and Gentiles (Acts
28:23, 30, 31), and thus his imprisonment “turned
rather to the furtherance of the gospel,” and his
“hired house” became the centre of a gracious
influence which spread over the whole city. According to a
Jewish tradition, it was situated on the borders of the
modern Ghetto, which has been the Jewish quarters in Rome
from the time of Pompey to the present day. During this
period the apostle wrote his epistles to the Colossians,
Ephesians, Philippians, and to Philemon, and probably also
to the Hebrews.
This first imprisonment came at length to a close, Paul
having been acquitted, probably because no witnesses
appeared against him. Once more he set out on his
missionary labours, probably visiting western and eastern
Europe and Asia Minor. During this period of freedom he
wrote his First Epistle to Timothy and his Epistle to
Titus. The year of his release was signalized by the
burning of Rome, which Nero saw fit to attribute to the
Christians. A fierce persecution now broke out against the
Christians. Paul was siezed, and once more conveyed to Rome
a prisoner. During this imprisonment he probably wrote the
Second Epistle to Timothy, the last he ever wrote.
“There can be little doubt that he appered again at
Nero’s bar, and this time the charge did not break
down. In all history there is not a more startling
illustration of the irony of human life than this scene of
Paul at the bar of Nero. On the judgment-seat, clad in the
imperial purple, sat a man who, in a bad world, had
attained the eminence of being the very worst and meanest
being in it, a man stained with every crime, a man whose
whole being was so steeped in every nameable and unnameable
vice, that body and soul of him were, as some one said at
the time, nothing but a compound of mud and blood; and in
the prisoner’s dock stood the best man the world
possessed, his hair whitened with labours for the good of
men and the glory of God. The trial ended: Paul was
condemned, and delivered over to the executioner. He was
led out of the city, with a crowd of the lowest rabble at
his heels. The fatal spot was reached; he knelt beside the
block; the headsman’s axe gleamed in the sun and fell;
and the head of the apostle of the world rolled down in the
dust” (probably A.D. 66), four years before the fall
of Jerusalem.
Pavement – It was the custom of
the Roman governors to erect their tribunals in open
places, as the market-place, the circus, or even the
highway. Pilate caused his seat of judgment to be set down
in a place called “the Pavement” (John 19:13)
i.e., a place paved with a mosaic of coloured stones. It
was probably a place thus prepared in front of the
“judgment hall.”
Pavilion – a tent or tabernacle
(2 Sam. 22:12; 1 Kings 20:12-16), or enclosure (Ps. 18:11;
27:5). In Jer. 43:10 it probably denotes the canopy
suspended over the judgement-seat of the king.
shelamim), detailed regulations regarding given in Lev. 3;
7:11-21, 29-34. They were of three kinds, (1) eucharistic
or thanksgiving offerings, expressive of gratitude for
blessings received; (2) in fulfilment of a vow, but
expressive also of thanks for benefits recieved; and (3)
free-will offerings, something spontaneously devoted to
God.
Peacock – (Heb. tuk, apparently
borrowed from the Tamil tokei). This bird is indigenous to
India. It was brought to Solomon by his ships from Tarshish
(1 Kings 10:22; 2 Chr. 9:21), which in this case was
probably a district on the Malabar coast of India, or in
Ceylon. The word so rendered in Job 39:13 literally means
wild, tumultuous crying, and properly denotes the female
ostrich (q.v.).
Pearl – (Heb. gabish, Job 28:18;
Gr. margarites, Matt. 7:6; 13:46; Rev. 21:21). The pearl
oyster is found in the Persian Gulf and the Red Sea. Its
shell is the “mother of pearl,” which is of great
value for ornamental purposes (1 Tim. 2:9; Rev. 17:4). Each
shell contains eight or ten pearls of various sizes.
Peculiar – as used in the phrase
“peculiar people” in 1 Pet. 2:9, is derived from
the Lat. peculium, and denotes, as rendered in the Revised
Version (“a people for God’s own
possession”), a special possession or property. The
church is the “property” of God, his
“purchased possession” (Eph. 1:14; R.V.,
“God’s own possession”).
Pedahel – redeemed of God, the
son of Ammihud, a prince of Naphtali (Num. 34:28).
Pedahzur – rock of redemption,
the father of Gamaliel and prince of Manasseh at the time
of the Exodus (Num. 1:10; 2:20).
Pedaiah – redemption of the Lord.
(1.) The father of Zebudah, who was the wife of Josiah and
mother of king Jehoiakim (2 Kings 23:36).
(2.) The father of Zerubbabel (1 Chr. 3:17-19).
(3.). The father of Joel, ruler of the half-tribe of
Manasseh (1 Chr. 27:20).
(4.) Neh. 3:25.
(5.) A Levite (8:4).
(6.) A Benjamite (11:7).
(7.) A Levite (13:13).
Remaliah a captain in the army of Pekahiah, king of Israel,
whom he slew, with the aid of a band of Gileadites, and
succeeded (B.C. 758) on the throne (2 Kings 15:25).
Seventeen years after this he entered into an alliance with
Rezin, king of Syria, and took part with him in besieging
Jerusalem (2 Kings 15:37; 16:5). But Tiglath-pilser, who
was in alliance with Ahaz, king of Judah, came up against
Pekah, and carried away captive many of the inhabitants of
his kingdom (2 Kings 15:29). This was the beginning of the
“Captivity.” Soon after this Pekah was put to
death by Hoshea, the son of Elah, who usurped the throne (2
Kings 15:30; 16:1-9. Comp. Isa. 7:16; 8:4; 9:12). He is
supposed by some to have been the “shephard”
mentioned in Zech. 11:16.
Pekahiah – the Lord opened his
eyes, the son and successor of Menahem on the throne of
Israel. He was murdered in the royal palace of Samaria by
Pekah, one of the captains of his army (2 Kings 15:23-26),
after a reign of two years (B.C. 761-759). He “did
that which was evil in the sight of the Lord.”
Babylonia (Jer. 50:21; Ezek. 23:23). It is the opinion,
however, of some that this word signifies
“visitation,” “punishment,” and
allegorically “designates Babylon as the city which
was to be destroyed.”
Pelaiah – distinguished of the
Lord. (1.) One of David’s posterity (1 Chr. 3:24).
(2.) A Levite who expounded the law (Neh. 8:7).
Lord. (1.) A son of Hananiah and grandson of Zerubbabel (1
Chr. 3:21).
(2.) A captain of “the sons of Simeon” (4:42).
(3.) Neh. 10:22.
(4.) One of the twenty-five princes of the people against
whom Ezekiel prophesied on account of their wicked counsel
(Ezek. 11:1-13).
Peleg – division, one of the sons
of Eber; so called because “in his days was the earth
divided” (Gen. 10:25). Possibly he may have lived at
the time of the dispersion from Babel. But more probably
the reference is to the dispersion of the two races which
sprang from Eber, the one spreading towards Mesopotamia and
Syria, and the other southward into Arabia.
descendant of Judah (1 Chr. 2:47).
(2.) A Benjamite who joined David at Ziklag (1 Chr. 12:3).
Reubenite whose son was one of the conspirators against
Moses and Aaron (Num. 16:1).
(2.) One of the sons of Jonathan (1 Chr. 2:33).
along with the Cherethites, and only in the time of David.
The word probably means “runners” or
“couriers,” and may denote that while forming
part of David’s bodyguard, they were also sometimes
employed as couriers (2 Sam. 8:18; 20:7, 23;1 Kings 1:38,
44; 1 Chr. 18:17). Some, however, think that these are the
names simply of two Philistine tribes from which David
selected his body-guard. They are mentioned along with the
Gittites (2 Sam. 15:18), another body of foreign troops
whom David gathered round him.
with at the waters of Merom and the Sea of Galilee. The
pelican is ranked among unclean birds (Lev. 11:18; Deut.
14:17). It is of an enormous size, being about 6 feet long,
with wings stretching out over 12 feet. The Hebrew name
(kaath, i.e., “vomiter”) of this bird is
incorrectly rendered “cormorant” in the
Authorized Version of Isa. 34:11 and Zeph. 2:14, but
correctly in the Revised Version. It receives its Hebrew
name from its habit of storing in its pouch large
quantities of fish, which it disgorges when it feeds its
young. Two species are found on the Syrian coast, the
Pelicanus onocrotalus, or white pelican, and the Pelicanus
crispus, or Dalmatian pelican.
Penny – (Gr. denarion), a silver
coin of the value of about 7 1/2d. or 8d. of our present
money. It is thus rendered in the New Testament, and is
more frequently mentioned than any other coin (Matt. 18:28;
20:2, 9, 13; Mark 6:37; 14:5, etc.). It was the daily pay
of a Roman soldier in the time of Christ. In the reign of
Edward III. an English penny was a labourer’s day’s
wages. This was the “tribute money” with
reference to which our Lord said, “Whose image and
superscription is this?” When they answered,
“Caesar’s,” he replied, “Render
therefore to Caesar the things that are Caesar’s; and
to God the things that are God’s” (Matt. 22:19;
Mark 12:15).
volume, consisting of the first five books of the Old
Testament. This word does not occur in Scripture, nor is it
certainly known when the roll was thus divided into five
portions Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, Deuteronomy.
Probably that was done by the LXX. translators. Some modern
critics speak of a Hexateuch, introducing the Book of
Joshua as one of the group. But this book is of an entirely
different character from the other books, and has a
different author. It stands by itself as the first of a
series of historical books beginning with the entrance of
the Israelites into Canaan.
The books composing the Pentateuch are properly but one
book, the “Law of Moses,” the “Book of the
Law of Moses,” the “Book of Moses,” or, as
the Jews designate it, the “Torah” or
“Law.” That in its present form it “proceeds
from a single author is proved by its plan and aim,
according to which its whole contents refer to the covenant
concluded between Jehovah and his people, by the
instrumentality of Moses, in such a way that everything
before his time is perceived to be preparatory to this
fact, and all the rest to be the development of it.
Nevertheless, this unity has not been stamped upon it as a
matter of necessity by the latest redactor: it has been
there from the beginning, and is visible in the first plan
and in the whole execution of the work.”, Keil, Einl.
i.d. A. T.
A certain school of critics have set themselves to
reconstruct the books of the Old Testament. By a process of
“scientific study” they have discovered that the
so-called historical books of the Old Testament are not
history at all, but a miscellaneous collection of stories,
the inventions of many different writers, patched together
by a variety of editors! As regards the Pentateuch, they
are not ashamed to attribute fraud, and even conspiracy, to
its authors, who sought to find acceptance to their work
which was composed partly in the age of Josiah, and partly
in that of Ezra and Nehemiah, by giving it out to be the
work of Moses! This is not the place to enter into the
details of this controversy. We may say frankly, however,
that we have no faith in this “higher criticism.”
It degrades the books of the Old Testament below the level
of fallible human writings, and the arguments on which its
speculations are built are altogether untenable.
The evidences in favour of the Mosaic authorship of the
Pentateuch are conclusive. We may thus state some of them
briefly:
(1.) These books profess to have been written by Moses in
the name of God (Ex. 17:14; 24:3, 4, 7; 32:7-10, 30-34;
34:27; Lev. 26:46; 27:34; Deut. 31:9, 24, 25).
(2.) This also is the uniform and persistent testimony of
the Jews of all sects in all ages and countries (comp.
Josh. 8:31, 32; 1 Kings 2:3; Jer. 7:22; Ezra 6:18; Neh.
8:1; Mal. 4:4; Matt. 22:24; Acts 15:21).
(3.) Our Lord plainly taught the Mosaic authorship of these
books (Matt. 5:17, 18; 19:8; 22:31, 32; 23:2; Mark 10:9;
12:26; Luke 16:31; 20:37; 24:26, 27, 44; John 3:14; 5:45,
46, 47; 6:32, 49; 7:19, 22). In the face of this fact, will
any one venture to allege either that Christ was ignorant
of the composition of the Bible, or that, knowing the true
state of the case, he yet encouraged the people in the
delusion they clung to?
(4.) From the time of Joshua down to the time of Ezra there
is, in the intermediate historical books, a constant
reference to the Pentateuch as the “Book of the Law of
Moses.” This is a point of much importance, inasmuch
as the critics deny that there is any such reference; and
hence they deny the historical character of the Pentateuch.
As regards the Passover, e.g., we find it frequently spoken
of or alluded to in the historical books following the
Pentateuch, showing that the “Law of Moses” was
then certainly known. It was celebrated in the time of
Joshua (Josh. 5:10, cf. 4:19), Hezekiah (2 Chr. 30), Josiah
(2 Kings 23; 2 Chr. 35), and Zerubbabel (Ezra 6:19-22), and
is referred to in such passages as 2 Kings 23:22; 2 Chr.
35:18; 1 Kings 9:25 (“three times in a year”); 2
Chr. 8:13. Similarly we might show frequent references to
the Feast of Tabernacles and other Jewish institutions,
although we do not admit that any valid argument can be
drawn from the silence of Scripture in such a case. An
examination of the following texts, 1 Kings 2:9; 2 Kings
14:6; 2 Chr. 23:18; 25:4; 34:14; Ezra 3:2; 7:6; Dan. 9:11,
13, will also plainly show that the “Law of
Moses” was known during all these centuries.
Granting that in the time of Moses there existed certain
oral traditions or written records and documents which he
was divinely led to make use of in his history, and that
his writing was revised by inspired successors, this will
fully account for certain peculiarities of expression which
critics have called “anachronisms” and
“contradictions,” but in no way militates against
the doctrine that Moses was the original author of the
whole of the Pentateuch. It is not necessary for us to
affirm that the whole is an original composition; but we
affirm that the evidences clearly demonstrate that Moses
was the author of those books which have come down to us
bearing his name. The Pentateuch is certainly the basis and
necessary preliminary of the whole of the Old Testament
history and literature.
“fiftieth”, found only in the New Testament (Acts
2:1; 20:16; 1 Cor. 16:8). The festival so named is first
spoken of in Ex. 23:16 as “the feast of harvest,”
and again in Ex. 34:22 as “the day of the
firstfruits” (Num. 28:26). From the sixteenth of the
month of Nisan (the second day of the Passover), seven
complete weeks, i.e., forty-nine days, were to be reckoned,
and this feast was held on the fiftieth day. The manner in
which it was to be kept is described in Lev. 23:15-19; Num.
28:27-29. Besides the sacrifices prescribed for the
occasion, every one was to bring to the Lord his
“tribute of a free-will offering” (Deut.
16:9-11). The purpose of this feast was to commemorate the
completion of the grain harvest. Its distinguishing feature
was the offering of “two leavened loaves” made
from the new corn of the completed harvest, which, with two
lambs, were waved before the Lord as a thank offering.
The day of Pentecost is noted in the Christian Church as
the day on which the Spirit descended upon the apostles,
and on which, under Peter’s preaching, so many
thousands were converted in Jerusalem (Acts 2).
Penuel – face of God, a place not
far from Succoth, on the east of the Jordan and north of
the river Jabbok. It is also called “Peniel.”
Here Jacob wrestled (Gen. 32:24-32) “with a man”
(“the angel”, Hos. 12:4. Jacob says of him,
“I have seen God face to face”) “till the
break of day.”
A town was afterwards built there (Judg. 8:8; 1 Kings
12:25). The men of this place refused to succour Gideon and
his little army when they were in pursuit of the Midianites
(Judg. 8:1-21). On his return, Gideon slew the men of this
city and razed its lofty watch-tower to the ground.
Peor – opening. (1.) A mountain
peak (Num. 23:28) to which Balak led Balaam as a last
effort to induce him to pronounce a curse upon Israel. When
he looked on the tribes encamped in the acacia groves below
him, he could not refrain from giving utterance to a
remarkable benediction (24:1-9). Balak was more than ever
enraged at Balaam, and bade him flee for his life. But
before he went he gave expression to that wonderful
prediction regarding the future of this mysterious people,
whose “goodly tents” were spread out before him,
and the coming of a “Star” out of Jacob and a
“Sceptre” out of Israel (24:14-17).
(2.) A Moabite divinity, called also “Baal-peor”
(Num. 25:3, 5, 18; comp. Deut. 3:29).
breaches, only in Isa. 28:21. It is the same as
BAAL-PERAZIM (q.v.), where David gained a victory over the
Philistines (2 Sam. 5:20).
mysterious words “written over against the candlestick
upon the plaster of the wall” of king Belshazzar’s
palace (Dan. 5:28).
Perez – =Pharez, (q.v.), breach,
the son of Judah (Neh. 11:4). “The chief of all the
captains of the host for the first month” in the reign
of David was taken from his family (1 Chr. 27:3). Four
hundred and sixty-eight of his “sons” came back
from captivity with Zerubbabel, who himself was one of them
(1 Chr. 9:4; Neh. 11:6).
Uzzah, a place where God “burst forth upon Uzzah, so
that he died,” when he rashly “took hold” of
the ark (2 Sam. 6:6-8). It was not far from Kirjath-jearim
(q.v.).
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