BIBLES NET. COM
Dictionary]
Easton’s Bible Dictionary
Corinth – a Grecian city, on the
isthmus which joins the Peloponnesus to the mainland of
Greece. It is about 48 miles west of Athens. The ancient
city was destroyed by the Romans (B.C. 146), and that
mentioned in the New Testament was quite a new city, having
been rebuilt about a century afterwards and peopled by a
colony of freedmen from Rome. It became under the Romans
the seat of government for Southern Greece or Achaia (Acts
18:12-16). It was noted for its wealth, and for the
luxurious and immoral and vicious habits of the people. It
had a large mixed population of Romans, Greeks, and Jews.
When Paul first visited the city (A.D. 51 or 52), Gallio,
the brother of Seneca, was proconsul. Here Paul resided for
eighteen months (18:1-18). Here he first became aquainted
with Aquila and Priscilla, and soon after his departure
Apollos came to it from Ephesus. After an interval he
visited it a second time, and remained for three months
(20:3). During this second visit his Epistle to the Romans
was written (probably A.D. 55). Although there were many
Jewish converts at Corinth, yet the Gentile element
prevailed in the church there.
Some have argued from 2 Cor. 12:14; 13:1, that Paul visited
Corinth a third time (i.e., that on some unrecorded
occasion he visited the city between what are usually
called the first and second visits). But the passages
referred to only indicate Paul’s intention to visit
Corinth (comp. 1 Cor. 16:5, where the Greek present tense
denotes an intention), an intention which was in some way
frustrated. We can hardly suppose that such a visit could
have been made by the apostle without more distinct
reference to it.
Corinthians, First Epistle to the
– was written from Ephesus (1 Cor. 16:8) about the time
of the Passover in the third year of the apostle’s
sojourn there (Acts 19:10; 20:31), and when he had formed
the purpose to visit Macedonia, and then return to Corinth
(probably A.D. 57).
The news which had reached him, however, from Corinth
frustrated his plan. He had heard of the abuses and
contentions that had arisen among them, first from Apollos
(Acts 19:1), and then from a letter they had written him on
the subject, and also from some of the “household of
Chloe,” and from Stephanas and his two friends who had
visited him (1 Cor. 1:11; 16:17). Paul thereupon wrote this
letter, for the purpose of checking the factious spirit and
correcting the erroneous opinions that had sprung up among
them, and remedying the many abuses and disorderly
practices that prevailed. Titus and a brother whose name is
not given were probably the bearers of the letter (2 Cor.
2:13; 8:6, 16-18).
The epistle may be divided into four parts:
(1.) The apostle deals with the subject of the lamentable
divisions and party strifes that had arisen among them (1
Cor. 1-4).
(2.) He next treats of certain cases of immorality that had
become notorious among them. They had apparently set at
nought the very first principles of morality (5; 6).
(3.) In the third part he discusses various questions of
doctrine and of Christian ethics in reply to certain
communications they had made to him. He especially
rectifies certain flagrant abuses regarding the celebration
of the Lord’s supper (7-14).
(4.) The concluding part (15; 16) contains an elaborate
defense of the doctrine of the resurrection of the dead,
which had been called in question by some among them,
followed by some general instructions, intimations, and
greetings.
This epistle “shows the powerful self-control of the
apostle in spite of his physical weakness, his distressed
circumstances, his incessant troubles, and his emotional
nature. It was written, he tells us, in bitter anguish,
‘out of much affliction and pressure of heart…and
with streaming eyes’ (2 Cor. 2:4); yet he restrained
the expression of his feelings, and wrote with a dignity
and holy calm which he thought most calculated to win back
his erring children. It gives a vivid picture of the early
church…It entirely dissipates the dream that the
apostolic church was in an exceptional condition of
holiness of life or purity of doctrine.” The apostle
in this epistle unfolds and applies great principles fitted
to guide the church of all ages in dealing with the same
and kindred evils in whatever form they may appear.
This is one of the epistles the authenticity of which has
never been called in question by critics of any school, so
many and so conclusive are the evidences of its Pauline
origin.
The subscription to this epistle states erroneously in the
Authorized Version that it was written at Philippi. This
error arose from a mistranslation of 1 Cor. 16:5, “For
I do pass through Macedonia,” which was interpreted as
meaning, “I am passing through Macedonia.” In
16:8 he declares his intention of remaining some time
longer in Ephesus. After that, his purpose is to “pass
through Macedonia.”
Corinthians, Second Epistle to the
– Shortly after writing his first letter to the
Corinthians, Paul left Ephesus, where intense excitement
had been aroused against him, the evidence of his great
success, and proceeded to Macedonia. Pursuing the usual
route, he reached Troas, the port of departure for Europe.
Here he expected to meet with Titus, whom he had sent from
Ephesus to Corinth, with tidings of the effects produced on
the church there by the first epistle; but was disappointed
(1 Cor. 16:9; 2 Cor. 1:8; 2:12, 13). He then left Troas and
proceeded to Macedonia; and at Philippi, where he tarried,
he was soon joined by Titus (2 Cor. 7:6, 7), who brought
him good news from Corinth, and also by Timothy. Under the
influence of the feelings awakened in his mind by the
favourable report which Titus brought back from Corinth,
this second epistle was written. It was probably written at
Philippi, or, as some think, Thessalonica, early in the
year A.D. 58, and was sent to Corinth by Titus. This letter
he addresses not only to the church in Corinth, but also to
the saints in all Achaia, i.e., in Athens, Cenchrea, and
other cities in Greece.
The contents of this epistle may be thus arranged:
(1.) Paul speaks of his spiritual labours and course of
life, and expresses his warm affection toward the
Corinthians (2 Cor. 1-7).
(2.) He gives specific directions regarding the collection
that was to be made for their poor brethren in Judea (8;
9).
(3.) He defends his own apostolic claim (10-13), and
justifies himself from the charges and insinuations of the
false teacher and his adherents.
This epistle, it has been well said, shows the
individuallity of the apostle more than any other.
“Human weakness, spiritual strength, the deepest
tenderness of affection, wounded feeling, sternness, irony,
rebuke, impassioned self-vindication, humility, a just
self-respect, zeal for the welfare of the weak and
suffering, as well as for the progress of the church of
Christ and for the spiritual advancement of its members,
are all displayed in turn in the course of his
appeal.”–Lias, Second Corinthians.
Of the effects produced on the Corinthian church by this
epistle we have no definite information. We know that Paul
visited Corinth after he had written it (Acts 20:2, 3), and
that on that occasion he tarried there for three months. In
his letter to Rome, written at this time, he sent
salutations from some of the principal members of the
church to the Romans.
Cormorant – (Lev. 11:17; Deut.
14:17), Heb. shalak, “plunging,” or “darting
down,” (the Phalacrocorax carbo), ranked among the
“unclean” birds; of the same family group as the
pelican. It is a “plunging” bird, and is common
on the coasts and the island seas of Palestine. Some think
the Hebrew word should be rendered “gannet” (Sula
bassana, “the solan goose”); others that it is
the “tern” or “sea swallow,” which also
frequents the coasts of Palestine as well as the Sea of
Galilee and the Jordan valley during several months of the
year. But there is no reason to depart from the ordinary
rendering.
In Isa. 34:11, Zeph. 2:14 (but in R.V.,
“pelican”) the Hebrew word rendered by this name
is ka’ath. It is translated “pelican”
(q.v.) in Ps. 102:6. The word literally means the
“vomiter,” and the pelican is so called from its
vomiting the shells and other things which it has
voraciously swallowed.
(dagan) in Gen. 27:28, 37, Num. 18:27, Deut. 28:51, Lam.
2:12, is a general term representing all the commodities we
usually describe by the words corn, grain, seeds, peas,
beans. With this corresponds the use of the word in John
12:24.
In Gen. 41:35, 49, Prov. 11:26, Joel 2:24
(“wheat”), the word thus translated (bar; i.e.,
“winnowed”) means corn purified from chaff. With
this corresponds the use of the word in the New Testament
(Matt. 3:12; Luke 3:17; Acts 7:12). In Ps. 65:13 it means
“growing corn.”
In Gen. 42:1, 2, 19, Josh. 9:14, Neh. 10:31
(“victuals”), the word (sheber; i.e.,
“broken,” i.e., grist) denotes generally
victuals, provisions, and corn as a principal article of
food.
From the time of Solomon, corn began to be exported from
Palestine (Ezek. 27:17; Amos 8:5). “Plenty of
corn” was a part of Issac’s blessing conferred
upon Jacob (Gen. 27:28; comp. Ps. 65:13).
history is narrated in Acts 10. He was a “devout
man,” and like the centurion of Capernaum, believed in
the God of Israel. His residence at Caesrea probably
brought him into contact with Jews who communicated to him
their expectations regarding the Messiah; and thus he was
prepared to welcome the message Peter brought him. He
became the first fruit of the Gentile world to Christ. He
and his family were baptized and admitted into the
Christian church (Acts 10:1, 44-48).
(Job 1:19) or a street (Prov. 7:8). “Corners” in
Neh. 9:22 denotes the various districts of the promised
land allotted to the Israelites. In Num. 24:17, the
“corners of Moab” denotes the whole land of Moab.
The “corner of a field” (Lev. 19:9; 23:22) is its
extreme part, which was not to be reaped. The Jews were
prohibited from cutting the “corners,” i.e., the
extremities, of the hair and whiskers running round the
ears (Lev. 19:27; 21:5). The “four corners of the
earth” in Isa. 11:12 and Ezek. 7:2 denotes the whole
land. The “corners of the streets” mentioned in
Matt. 6:5 means the angles where streets meet so as to form
a square or place of public resort.
The corner gate of Jerusalem (2 Kings 14:13; 2 Chr. 26:9)
was on the north-west side of the city.
Corner-stone (Job 38:6; Isa. 28:16), a block of great
importance in binding together the sides of a building. The
“head of the corner” (Ps. 118:22, 23) denotes the
coping, the “coign of vantage”, i.e., the
topstone of a building. But the word “corner
stone” is sometimes used to denote some person of rank
and importance (Isa. 28:16). It is applied to our Lord, who
was set in highest honour (Matt. 21:42). He is also styled
“the chief corner stone” (Eph. 2:20; 1 Pet.
2:6-8). When Zechariah (10:4), speaking of Judah, says,
“Out of him came forth the corner,” he is
probably to be understood as ultimately referring to the
Messiah as the “corner stone.” (See TEMPLE,
SOLOMON’S ¯T0003612.)
“brightness,” with reference to the clearness of
its sound (1 Chr. 15:28; 2 Chr. 15:14; Ps. 98:6; Hos. 5:8).
It is usually rendered in the Authorized Version
“trumpet.” It denotes the long and straight horn,
about eighteen inches long. The words of Joel, “Blow
the trumpet,” literally, “Sound the cornet,”
refer to the festival which was the preparation for the day
of Atonement. In Dan. 3:5, 7, 10, 15, the word (keren) so
rendered is a curved horn. The word “cornet” in 2
Sam. 6:5 (Heb. mena’an’im, occurring only here) was
some kind of instrument played by being shaken like the
Egyptian sistrum, consisting of rings or bells hung loosely
on iron rods.
Cotes – pens or enclosures for
flocks (2 Chr. 32:28, “cotes for flocks;” R.V.,
“flocks in folds”).
vineyard (Isa. 1:8); a temporary shed covered with leaves
or straw to shelter the watchman that kept the garden.
These were slight fabrics, and were removed when no longer
needed, or were left to be blown down in winter (Job
27:18).
(2.) A lodging-place (rendered “lodge” in Isa.
1:8); a slighter structure than the “booth,” as
the cucumber patch is more temporary than a vineyard (Isa.
24:20). It denotes a frail structure of boughs supported on
a few poles, which is still in use in the East, or a
hammock suspended between trees, in which the watchman was
accustomed to sleep during summer.
(3.) In Zeph. 2:6 it is the rendering of the Hebrew
keroth, which some suppose to denote rather
“pits” (R.V. marg., “caves”) or
“wells of water,” such as shepherds would sink.
Couch – (Gen. 49:4; 1 Chr. 5:1;
Job 7:13; Ps. 6:6, etc.), a seat for repose or rest.
Coulter – (1 Sam. 13:20, 21), an
agricultural instrument, elsewhere called
“ploughshare” (Isa. 2:4; Micah 4:3; Joel 3:10).
It was the facing-piece of a plough, analogous to the
modern coulter.
Council – spoken of counsellors
who sat in public trials with the governor of a province
(Acts 25:12).
The Jewish councils were the Sanhedrim, or supreme council
of the nation, which had subordinate to it smaller
tribunals (the “judgment,” perhaps, in Matt.
5:21, 22) in the cities of Palestine (Matt. 10:17; Mark
13:9). In the time of Christ the functions of the Sanhedrim
were limited (John 16:2; 2 Cor. 11:24). In Ps. 68:27 the
word “council” means simply a company of persons.
(R.V. marg., “company.”)
In ecclesiastical history the word is used to denote an
assembly of pastors or bishops for the discussion and
regulation of church affairs. The first of these councils
was that of the apostles and elders at Jerusalem, of which
we have a detailed account in Acts 15.
Counsellor – an adviser (Prov.
11:14; 15:22), a king’s state counsellor (2 Sam.
15:12). Used once of the Messiah (Isa. 9:6). In Mark 15:43,
Luke 23:50, the word probably means a member of the Jewish
Sanhedrim.
permitted to build the temple, he proceeded, among the last
acts of his life, with the assistance of Zadok and
Ahimelech, to organize the priestly and musical services to
be conducted in the house of God. (1.) He divided the
priests into twenty-four courses (1 Chr. 24:1-19), sixteen
being of the house of Eleazar and eight of that of Ithamar.
Each course was under a head or chief, and ministered for a
week, the order being determined by lot. (2.) The rest of
the 38,000 Levites (23:4) were divided also into
twenty-four courses, each to render some allotted service
in public worship: 4,000 in twenty-four courses were set
apart as singers and musicians under separate leaders (25);
4,000 as porters or keepers of the doors and gates of the
sanctuary (26:1-19); and 6,000 as officers and judges to
see to the administration of the law in all civil and
ecclesiastical matters (20-32).
This arrangement was re-established by Hezekiah (2 Chr.
31:2); and afterwards the four sacerdotal courses which are
said to have returned from the Captivity were re-divided
into the original number of twenty-four by Ezra (6:18).
tabernacle (Ex. 27:9-19; 40:8), of the temple (1 Kings
6:36), of a prison (Neh. 3:25), of a private house (2 Sam.
17:18), and of a king’s palace (2 Kings 20:4).
agreement between two parties. In the Old Testament the
Hebrew word berith is always thus translated.
Berith is derived from a root which means “to
cut,” and hence a covenant is a “cutting,”
with reference to the cutting or dividing of animals into
two parts, and the contracting parties passing between
them, in making a covenant (Gen. 15; Jer. 34:18, 19).
The corresponding word in the New Testament Greek is
diatheke, which is, however, rendered
“testament” generally in the Authorized Version.
It ought to be rendered, just as the word berith of
the Old Testament, “covenant.”
This word is used (1) of a covenant or compact between man
and man (Gen. 21:32), or between tribes or nations (1 Sam.
11:1; Josh. 9:6, 15). In entering into a convenant, Jehovah
was solemnly called on to witness the transaction (Gen.
31:50), and hence it was called a “covenant of the
Lord” (1 Sam. 20:8). The marriage compact is called
“the covenant of God” (Prov. 2:17), because the
marriage was made in God’s name. Wicked men are spoken
of as acting as if they had made a “covenant with
death” not to destroy them, or with hell not to devour
them (Isa. 28:15, 18).
(2.) The word is used with reference to God’s
revelation of himself in the way of promise or of favour to
men. Thus God’s promise to Noah after the Flood is
called a covenant (Gen. 9; Jer. 33:20, “my
covenant”). We have an account of God’s covernant
with Abraham (Gen. 17, comp. Lev. 26:42), of the covenant
of the priesthood (Num. 25:12, 13; Deut. 33:9; Neh. 13:29),
and of the covenant of Sinai (Ex. 34:27, 28; Lev. 26:15),
which was afterwards renewed at different times in the
history of Israel (Deut. 29; Josh. 1:24; 2 Chr. 15; 23; 29;
34; Ezra 10; Neh. 9). In conformity with human custom,
God’s covenant is said to be confirmed with an oath
(Deut. 4:31; Ps. 89:3), and to be accompanied by a sign
(Gen. 9; 17). Hence the covenant is called God’s
“counsel,” “oath,” “promise”
(Ps. 89:3, 4; 105:8-11; Heb. 6:13-20; Luke 1:68-75).
God’s covenant consists wholly in the bestowal of
blessing (Isa. 59:21; Jer. 31:33, 34).
The term covenant is also used to designate the regular
succession of day and night (Jer. 33:20), the Sabbath (Ex.
31:16), circumcision (Gen. 17:9, 10), and in general any
ordinance of God (Jer. 34:13, 14).
A “covenant of salt” signifies an everlasting
covenant, in the sealing or ratifying of which salt, as an
emblem of perpetuity, is used (Num. 18:19; Lev. 2:13; 2
Chr. 13:5).
COVENANT OF WORKS, the constitution under which Adam was
placed at his creation. In this covenant, (1.) The
contracting parties were (a) God the moral Governor, and
(b) Adam, a free moral agent, and representative of all his
natural posterity (Rom. 5:12-19). (2.) The promise was
“life” (Matt. 19:16, 17; Gal. 3:12). (3.) The
condition was perfect obedience to the law, the test in
this case being abstaining from eating the fruit of the
“tree of knowledge,” etc. (4.) The penalty was
death (Gen. 2:16, 17).
This covenant is also called a covenant of nature, as made
with man in his natural or unfallen state; a covenant of
life, because “life” was the promise attached to
obedience; and a legal covenant, because it demanded
perfect obedience to the law.
The “tree of life” was the outward sign and seal
of that life which was promised in the covenant, and hence
it is usually called the seal of that covenant.
This covenant is abrogated under the gospel, inasmuch as
Christ has fulfilled all its conditions in behalf of his
people, and now offers salvation on the condition of faith.
It is still in force, however, as it rests on the immutable
justice of God, and is binding on all who have not fled to
Christ and accepted his righteousness.
CONVENANT OF GRACE, the eternal plan of redemption entered
into by the three persons of the Godhead, and carried out
by them in its several parts. In it the Father represented
the Godhead in its indivisible sovereignty, and the Son his
people as their surety (John 17:4, 6, 9; Isa. 42:6; Ps.
89:3).
The conditions of this covenant were, (1.) On the part of
the Father (a) all needful preparation to the Son for the
accomplishment of his work (Heb. 10:5; Isa. 42:1-7); (b)
support in the work (Luke 22:43); and (c) a glorious reward
in the exaltation of Christ when his work was done (Phil.
2:6-11), his investiture with universal dominion (John
5:22; Ps. 110:1), his having the administration of the
covenant committed into his hands (Matt. 28:18; John 1:12;
17:2; Acts 2:33), and in the final salvation of all his
people (Isa. 35:10; 53:10, 11; Jer. 31:33; Titus 1:2). (2.)
On the part of the Son the conditions were (a) his becoming
incarnate (Gal. 4:4, 5); and (b) as the second Adam his
representing all his people, assuming their place and
undertaking all their obligations under the violated
covenant of works; (c) obeying the law (Ps. 40:8; Isa.
42:21; John 9:4, 5), and (d) suffering its penalty (Isa.
53; 2 Cor. 5:21; Gal. 3:13), in their stead.
Christ, the mediator of, fulfils all its conditions in
behalf of his people, and dispenses to them all its
blessings. In Heb. 8:6; 9:15; 12:24, this title is given to
Christ.
only in Gen. 20:16. In the Revised Version the rendering is
“it (i.e., Abimelech’s present of 1,000 pieces of
silver to Abraham) is for thee a covering of the
eyes.” This has been regarded as an implied advice to
Sarah to conform to the custom of married women, and wear a
complete veil, covering the eyes as well as the rest of the
face.
Covetousness – a strong desire
after the possession of worldly things (Col. 3:5; Eph. 5:5;
Heb. 13:5; 1 Tim. 6:9, 10; Matt. 6:20). It assumes
sometimes the more aggravated form of avarice, which is the
mark of cold-hearted worldliness.
Cow – A cow and her calf were not
to be killed on the same day (Lev. 22:28; Ex. 23:19; Deut.
22:6, 7). The reason for this enactment is not given. A
state of great poverty is described in the words of Isa.
7:21-25, where, instead of possessing great resources, a
man shall depend for the subsistence of himself and his
family on what a single cow and two sheep could yield.
Crane – (Isa. 38:14; Jer. 8:7).
In both of these passages the Authorized Version has
reversed the Hebrew order of the words. “Crane or
swallow” should be “swallow or crane,” as in
the Revised Version. The rendering is there correct. The
Hebrew for crane is ‘agur, the Grus cincerea, a
bird well known in Palestine. It is migratory, and is
distinguished by its loud voice, its cry being hoarse and
melancholy.
beginning” God created, i.e., called into being, all
things out of nothing. This creative act on the part of God
was absolutely free, and for infinitely wise reasons. The
cause of all things exists only in the will of God. The
work of creation is attributed (1) to the Godhead (Gen.
1:1, 26); (2) to the Father (1 Cor. 8:6); (3) to the Son
(John 1:3; Col. 1:16, 17); (4) to the Holy Spirit (Gen.
1:2; Job 26:13; Ps. 104:30). The fact that he is the
Creator distinguishes Jehovah as the true God (Isa. 37:16;
40:12, 13; 54:5; Ps. 96:5; Jer. 10:11, 12). The one great
end in the work of creation is the manifestation of the
glory of the Creator (Col. 1:16; Rev. 4:11; Rom. 11:36).
God’s works, equally with God’s word, are a
revelation from him; and between the teachings of the one
and those of the other, when rightly understood, there can
be no contradiction.
Traditions of the creation, disfigured by corruptions, are
found among the records of ancient Eastern nations. (See
ACCAD.) A peculiar interest belongs to the traditions
of the Accadians, the primitive inhabitants of the plains
of Lower Mesopotamia. These within the last few years have
been brought to light in the tablets and cylinders which
have been rescued from the long-buried palaces and temples
of Assyria. They bear a remarkable resemblance to the
record of Genesis.
creation in Rom. 8:39; Col. 1:15; Rev. 5:13; the whole
human race in Mark 16:15; Rom. 8:19-22.
The living creatures in Ezek. 10:15, 17, are imaginary
beings, symbols of the Divine attributes and operations.
Crescens – increasing, probably
one of the seventy disciples of Christ. He was one of
Paul’s assistants (2 Tim. 4:10), probably a Christian
of Rome.
Crete – now called Candia, one of
the largest islands in the Meditterranean, about 140 miles
long and 35 broad. It was at one time a very prosperous and
populous island, having a “hundred cities.” The
character of the people is described in Paul’s
quotation from “one of their own poets”
(Epimenides) in his epistle to Titus: “The Cretans are
alway liars, evil beasts, slow bellies” (Titus 1:12).
Jews from Crete were in Jerusalem on the day of Pentecost
(Acts 2:11). The island was visited by Paul on his voyage
to Rome (Acts 27). Here Paul subsequently left Titus (1:5)
“to ordain elders.” Some have supposed that it
was the original home of the Caphtorim (q.v.) or
Philistines.
Crisping-pin – (Isa. 3:22; R.V.,
“satchel”), some kind of female ornament,
probably like the modern reticule. The Hebrew word
harit properly signifies pouch or casket or purse. It
is rendered “bag” in 2 Kings 5:23.
Crispus – curled, the chief of
the synagogue at Corinth (Acts 18:8). He was converted and,
with his family, baptized by Paul (1 Cor. 1:14).
Cross – in the New Testament the
instrument of crucifixion, and hence used for the
crucifixion of Christ itself (Eph. 2:16; Heb. 12:2; 1 Cor.
1:17, 18; Gal. 5:11; 6:12, 14; Phil. 3:18). The word is
also used to denote any severe affliction or trial (Matt.
10:38; 16:24; Mark 8:34; 10:21).
The forms in which the cross is represented are these:
1. The crux simplex (I), a “single piece without
transom.”
2. The crux decussata (X), or St. Andrew’s cross.
3. The crux commissa (T), or St. Anthony’s cross.
4. The crux immissa (t), or Latin cross, which was the kind
of cross on which our Saviour died. Above our Lord’s
head, on the projecting beam, was placed the
“title.”
After the conversion, so-called, of Constantine the Great
(B.C. 313), the cross first came into use as an emblem of
Christianity. He pretended at a critical moment that he saw
a flaming cross in the heavens bearing the inscription,
“In hoc signo vinces”, i.e., By this sign thou
shalt conquer, and that on the following night Christ
himself appeared and ordered him to take for his standard
the sign of this cross. In this form a new standard, called
the Labarum, was accordingly made, and borne by the Roman
armies. It remained the standard of the Roman army till the
downfall of the Western empire. It bore the embroidered
monogram of Christ, i.e., the first two Greek letters of
his name, X and P (chi and rho), with the Alpha and Omega.
Crown – (1.) Denotes the plate of
gold in the front of the high priest’s mitre (Ex. 29:6;
39:30). The same Hebrew word so rendered (ne’zer)
denotes the diadem worn by Saul in battle (2 Sam. 1:10),
and also that which was used at the coronation of Joash (2
Kings 11:12).
(2.) The more general name in Hebrew for a crown is
‘atarah, meaning a “circlet.” This is
used of crowns and head ornaments of divers kinds,
including royal crowns. Such was the crown taken from the
king of Ammon by David (2 Sam. 12:30). The crown worn by
the Assyrian kings was a high mitre, sometimes adorned with
flowers. There are sculptures also representing the crowns
worn by the early Egyptian and Persian kings. Sometimes a
diadem surrounded the royal head-dress of two or three
fillets. This probably signified that the wearer had
dominion over two or three countries. In Rev. 12:3; 13:1,
we read of “many crowns,” a token of extended
dominion.
(3.) The ancient Persian crown (Esther 1:11; 2:17; 6:8) was
called kether; i.e., “a chaplet,” a high
cap or tiara. Crowns were worn sometimes to represent
honour and power (Ezek. 23:42). They were worn at marriages
(Cant. 3:11; Isa. 61:10, “ornaments;” R.V.,
“a garland”), and at feasts and public festivals.
The crown was among the Romans and Greeks a symbol of
victory and reward. The crown or wreath worn by the victors
in the Olympic games was made of leaves of the wild olive;
in the Pythian games, of laurel; in the Nemean games, of
parsley; and in the Isthmian games, of the pine. The Romans
bestowed the “civic crown” on him who saved the
life of a citizen. It was made of the leaves of the oak. In
opposition to all these fading crowns the apostles speak of
the incorruptible crown, the crown of life (James 1:12;
Rev. 2:10) “that fadeth not away” (1 Pet. 5:4,
Gr. amarantinos; comp. 1:4). Probably the word
“amaranth” was applied to flowers we call
“everlasting,” the “immortal amaranth.”
Crown of thorns – our Lord was
crowned with a, in mockery by the Romans (Matt. 27:29). The
object of Pilate’s guard in doing this was probably to
insult, and not specially to inflict pain. There is nothing
to show that the shrub thus used was, as has been supposed,
the spina Christi, which could have been easily woven into
a wreath. It was probably the thorny nabk, which grew
abundantly round about Jerusalem, and whose flexible,
pliant, and round branches could easily be platted into the
form of a crown. (See THORN ¯T0003642, 3.)
Crucifixion – a common mode of
punishment among heathen nations in early times. It is not
certain whether it was known among the ancient Jews;
probably it was not. The modes of capital punishment
according to the Mosaic law were, by the sword (Ex. 21),
strangling, fire (Lev. 20), and stoning (Deut. 21).
This was regarded as the most horrible form of death, and
to a Jew it would acquire greater horror from the curse in
Deut. 21:23.
This punishment began by subjecting the sufferer to
scourging. In the case of our Lord, however, his scourging
was rather before the sentence was passed upon him, and was
inflicted by Pilate for the purpose, probably, of exciting
pity and procuring his escape from further punishment (Luke
23:22; John 19:1).
The condemned one carried his own cross to the place of
execution, which was outside the city, in some conspicuous
place set apart for the purpose. Before the nailing to the
cross took place, a medicated cup of vinegar mixed with
gall and myrrh (the sopor) was given, for the purpose of
deadening the pangs of the sufferer. Our Lord refused this
cup, that his senses might be clear (Matt. 27:34). The
spongeful of vinegar, sour wine, posca, the common drink of
the Roman soldiers, which was put on a hyssop stalk and
offered to our Lord in contemptuous pity (Matt. 27:48; Luke
23:36), he tasted to allay the agonies of his thirst (John
19:29). The accounts given of the crucifixion of our Lord
are in entire agreement with the customs and practices of
the Roman in such cases. He was crucified between two
“malefactors” (Isa. 53:12; Luke 23:32), and was
watched by a party of four soldiers (John 19:23; Matt.
27:36, 54), with their centurion. The “breaking of the
legs” of the malefactors was intended to hasten death,
and put them out of misery (John 19:31); but the unusual
rapidity of our Lord’s death (19:33) was due to his
previous sufferings and his great mental anguish. The
omission of the breaking of his legs was the fulfilment of
a type (Ex. 12:46). He literally died of a broken heart, a
ruptured heart, and hence the flowing of blood and water
from the wound made by the soldier’s spear (John
19:34). Our Lord uttered seven memorable words from the
cross, namely, (1) Luke 23:34; (2) 23:43; (3) John 19:26;
(4) Matt. 27:46, Mark 15:34; (5) John 19:28; (6) 19:30; (7)
Luke 23:46.
Cruse – a utensil; a flask or cup
for holding water (1 Sam. 26:11, 12, 16; 1 Kings 19:6) or
oil (1 Kings 17:12, 14, 16). In 1 Kings 14:3 the word there
so rendered means properly a bottle, as in Jer. 19:1, 10,
or pitcher. In 2 Kings 2:20, a platter or flat metal saucer
is intended. The Hebrew word here used is translated
“dish” in 21:13; “pans,” in 2 Chr.
35:13; and “bosom,” in Prov. 19:24; 26:15 (R.V.,
“dish”).
Crystal – (Ezek. 1:22, with the
epithet “terrible,” as dazzling the spectators
with its brightness). The word occurs in Rev. 4:6; 21:11;
22:1. It is a stone of the flint order, the most refined
kind of quartz. The Greek word here used means also
literally “ice.” The ancients regarded the
crystal as only pure water congealed into extreme hardness
by great length of time.
“mother of the arm,” the fore-arm, is a word
derived from the Latin cubitus, the lower arm. It is
difficult to determine the exact length of this measure,
from the uncertainty whether it included the entire length
from the elbow to the tip of the longest finger, or only
from the elbow to the root of the hand at the wrist. The
probability is that the longer was the original cubit. The
common computation as to the length of the cubit makes it
20.24 inches for the ordinary cubit, and 21.888 inches for
the sacred one. This is the same as the Egyptian
measurements.
A rod or staff the measure of a cubit is called in Judg.
3:16 gomed, which literally means a “cut,”
something “cut off.” The LXX. and Vulgate render
it “span.”
Cuckoo – (Heb. shahaph), from a
root meaning “to be lean; slender.” This bird is
mentioned only in Lev. 11:16 and Deut. 14:15 (R.V.,
“seamew”). Some have interpreted the Hebrew word
by “petrel” or “shearwater” (Puffinus
cinereus), which is found on the coast of Syria; others
think it denotes the “sea-gull” or
“seamew.” The common cuckoo (Cuculus canorus)
feeds on reptiles and large insects. It is found in Asia
and Africa as well as in Europe. It only passes the winter
in Palestine. The Arabs suppose it to utter the cry
Yakub_, and hence they call it _tir el-Yakub; i.e.,
“Jacob’s bird.”
kishshuim; i.e., “hard,” “difficult” of
digestion, only in Num. 11:5). This vegetable is
extensively cultivated in the East at the present day, as
it appears to have been in earlier times among the Hebrews.
It belongs to the gourd family of plants. In the East its
cooling pulp and juice are most refreshing. “We need
not altogether wonder that the Israelites, wearily marching
through the arid solitudes of the Sinaitic peninsula,
thought more of the cucumbers and watermelons of which they
had had no lack in Egypt, rather than of the cruel bondage
which was the price of these luxuries.” Groser’s
Scripture Natural History.
Isaiah speaks of a “lodge” (1:8; Heb. sukkah),
i.e., a shed or edifice more solid than a booth, for the
protection throughout the season from spring to autumn of
the watchers in a “garden of cucumbers.”
Cummin – (Heb. kammon; i.e., a
“condiment”), the fruit or seed of an
umbelliferous plant, the Cuminum sativum, still extensively
cultivated in the East. Its fruit is mentioned in Isa.
28:25, 27. In the New Testament it is mentioned in Matt.
23:23, where our Lord pronounces a “woe” on the
scribes and Pharisees, who were zealous in paying tithes of
“mint and anise and cummin,” while they omitted
the weightier matters of the law.” “It is used as
a spice, both bruised, to mix with bread, and also boiled,
in the various messes and stews which compose an Oriental
banquet.” Tristram, Natural History.
21), various forms of which are found on Assyrian and
Egyptian monuments. All Solomon’s drinking vessels were
of gold (1 Kings 10: 21). The cups mentioned in the New
Testament were made after Roman and Greek models, and were
sometimes of gold (Rev. 17:4).
The art of divining by means of a cup was practiced in
Egypt (Gen. 44:2-17), and in the East generally.
The “cup of salvation” (Ps. 116:13) is the cup of
thanksgiving for the great salvation. The “cup of
consolation” (Jer. 16:7) refers to the custom of
friends sending viands and wine to console relatives in
mourning (Prov. 31:6). In 1 Cor. 10:16, the “cup of
blessing” is contrasted with the “cup of
devils” (1 Cor. 10:21). The sacramental cup is the
“cup of blessing,” because of blessing pronounced
over it (Matt. 26:27; Luke 22:17). The “portion of the
cup” (Ps. 11:6; 16:5) denotes one’s condition of
life, prosperous or adverse. A “cup” is also a
type of sensual allurement (Jer. 51:7; Prov. 23:31; Rev.
17:4). We read also of the “cup of astonishment,”
the “cup of trembling,” and the “cup of
God’s wrath” (Ps. 75:8; Isa. 51:17; Jer. 25:15;
Lam. 4:21; Ezek. 23:32; Rev. 16:19; comp. Matt. 26:39, 42;
John 18:11). The cup is also the symbol of death (Matt.
16:28; Mark 9:1; Heb. 2:9).
Cup-bearer – an officer of high
rank with Egyptian, Persian, Assyrian, and Jewish monarchs.
The cup-bearer of the king of Egypt is mentioned in
connection with Joseph’s history (Gen. 40:1-21; 41:9).
Rabshakeh (q.v.) was cup-bearer in the Assyrian court (2
Kings 18:17). Nehemiah filled this office to the king of
Persia (Neh. 1:11). We read also of Solomon’s
cup-bearers (1 Kings 10:5; 2 Chr. 9:4).
magical arts; jugglery practised by the Ephesian conjurers.
Ephesus was noted for its wizard and the “Ephesian
spells;” i.e., charms or scraps of parchment written
over with certain formula, which were worn as a safeguard
against all manner of evils. The more important and
powerful of these charms were written out in books which
circulated among the exorcists, and were sold at a great
price.
Curse – denounced by God against
the serpent (Gen. 3:14), and against Cain (4:11). These
divine maledictions carried their effect with them.
Prophetical curses were sometimes pronounced by holy men
(Gen. 9:25; 49:7; Deut. 27:15; Josh. 6:26). Such curses are
not the consequence of passion or revenge, they are
predictions.
No one on pain of death shall curse father or mother (Ex.
21:17), nor the prince of his people (22:28), nor the deaf
(Lev. 19:14). Cursing God or blaspheming was punishable by
death (Lev. 24:10-16). The words “curse God and
die” (R.V., “renounce God and die”), used by
Job’s wife (Job 2:9), have been variously interpreted.
Perhaps they simply mean that as nothing but death was
expected, God would by this cursing at once interpose and
destroy Job, and so put an end to his sufferings.
Curtain – (1.) Ten curtains, each
twenty-eight cubits long and four wide, made of fine linen,
also eleven made of goat’s hair, covered the tabernacle
(Ex. 26:1-13; 36:8-17).
(2.) The sacred curtain, separating the holy of holies from
the sanctuary, is designated by a different Hebrew word
(peroketh). It is described as a “veil of blue, and
purple, and scarlet, and fine twined linen of cunning
work” (Ex. 26:31; Lev. 16:2; Num. 18:7).
(3.) “Stretcheth out the heavens as a curtain”
(Isa. 40:22), is an expression used with reference to the
veil or awning which Orientals spread for a screen over
their courts in summer. According to the prophet, the
heavens are spread over our heads as such an awning.
Similar expressions are found in Ps. 104:2l; comp. Isa.
44:24; Job 9:8.
probably the eldest, of Ham, and the father of Nimrod (Gen.
10:8; 1 Chr. 1:10). From him the land of Cush seems to have
derived its name. The question of the precise locality of
the land of Cush has given rise to not a little
controversy. The second river of Paradise surrounded the
whole land of Cush (Gen. 2:13, R.V.). The term Cush is in
the Old Testament generally applied to the countries south
of the Israelites. It was the southern limit of Egypt
(Ezek. 29:10, A.V. “Ethiopia,” Heb. Cush), with
which it is generally associated (Ps. 68:31; Isa. 18:1;
Jer. 46:9, etc.). It stands also associated with Elam (Isa.
11:11), with Persia (Ezek. 38:5), and with the Sabeans
(Isa. 45:14). From these facts it has been inferred that
Cush included Arabia and the country on the west coast of
the Red Sea. Rawlinson takes it to be the country still
known as Khuzi-stan, on the east side of the Lower Tigris.
But there are intimations which warrant the conclusion that
there was also a Cush in Africa, the Ethiopia (so called by
the Greeks) of Africa. Ezekiel speaks (29:10; comp. 30:4-6)
of it as lying south of Egypt. It was the country now known
to us as Nubia and Abyssinia (Isa. 18:1; Zeph. 3:10, Heb.
Cush). In ancient Egyptian inscriptions Ethiopia is termed
Kesh. The Cushites appear to have spread along
extensive tracts, stretching from the Upper Nile to the
Euphrates and Tigris. At an early period there was a stream
of migration of Cushites “from Ethiopia, properly so
called, through Arabia, Babylonia, and Persia, to Western
India.” The Hamite races, soon after their arrival in
Africa, began to spread north, east, and west. Three
branches of the Cushite or Ethiopian stock, moving from
Western Asia, settled in the regions contiguous to the
Persian Gulf. One branch, called the Cossaeans, settled in
the mountainous district on the east of the Tigris, known
afterwards as Susiana; another occupied the lower regions
of the Euphrates and the Tigris; while a third colonized
the southern shores and islands of the gulf, whence they
afterwards emigrated to the Mediterranean and settled on
the coast of Palestine as the Phoenicians. Nimrod was a
great Cushite chief. He conquered the Accadians, a
Tauranian race, already settled in Mesopotamia, and founded
his kingdom, the Cushites mingling with the Accads, and so
forming the Chaldean nation.
(2.) A Benjamite of this name is mentioned in the title of
Ps. 7. “Cush was probably a follower of Saul, the head
of his tribe, and had sought the friendship of David for
the purpose of ‘rewarding evil to him that was at peace
with him.'”
prolonged name of the land of Cush, the Arabian Cush (Hab.
3:7). Some have, however, supposed this to be the same as
Chushan-rishathaim (Judg. 3:8, 10), i.e., taking the latter
part of the name as a title or local appellation, Chushan
“of the two iniquities” (= oppressing Israel, and
provoking them to idolatry), a Mesopotamian king,
identified by Rawlinson with Asshur-ris-ilim (the father of
Tiglathpileser I.); but incorrectly, for the empire of
Assyria was not yet founded. He held Israel in bondage for
eight years.
Cushite – (1.) The messenger sent
by Joab to David to announce his victory over Absalom (2
Sam. 18:32).
(2.) The father of Shelemiah (Jer. 36:14).
(3.) Son of Gedaliah, and father of the prophet Zephaniah
(1:1).
(4.) Moses married a Cushite woman (Num. 12:1). From this
circumstance some have supposed that Zipporah was meant,
and hence that Midian was Cush.
Romans. The tax-gatherers were termed publicans (q.v.), who
had their stations at the gates of cities, and in the
public highways, and at the place set apart for that
purpose, called the “receipt of custom” (Matt.9:
9; Mark 2:14), where they collected the money that was to
be paid on certain goods (Matt.17:25). These publicans were
tempted to exact more from the people than was lawful, and
were, in consequence of their extortions, objects of great
hatred. The Pharisees would have no intercourse with them
(Matt.5:46, 47; 9:10, 11).
A tax or tribute (q.v.) of half a shekel was annually paid
by every adult Jew for the temple. It had to be paid in
Jewish coin (Matt. 22:17-19; Mark 12:14, 15).
Money-changers (q.v.) were necessary, to enable the Jews
who came up to Jerusalem at the feasts to exchange their
foreign coin for Jewish money; but as it was forbidden by
the law to carry on such a traffic for emolument (Deut.
23:19, 20), our Lord drove them from the temple (Matt.
21:12: Mark 11:15).
Cuthah – one of the Babylonian
cities or districts from which Shalmaneser transplanted
certain colonists to Samaria (2 Kings 17:24). Some have
conjectured that the “Cutheans” were identical
with the “Cossaeans” who inhabited the
hill-country to the north of the river Choaspes. Cuthah is
now identified with Tell Ibrahim, 15 miles north-east of
Babylon.
Cutting – the flesh in various
ways was an idolatrous practice, a part of idol-worship
(Deut. 14:1; 1 Kings 18:28). The Israelites were commanded
not to imitate this practice (Lev. 19:28; 21:5; Deut.
14:1). The tearing of the flesh from grief and anguish of
spirit in mourning for the dead was regarded as a mark of
affection (Jer. 16:6; 41:5; 48:37).
Allusions are made in Revelation (13:16; 17:5; 19:20) to
the practice of printing marks on the body, to indicate
allegiance to a deity. We find also references to it,
through in a different direction, by Paul (Gal. 6; 7) and
HAIR.)
Cymbals – (Heb. tzeltzelim, from
a root meaning to “tinkle”), musical instruments,
consisting of two convex pieces of brass one held in each
hand, which were clashed together to produce a loud
clanging sound; castanets; “loud cymbals.”
“Highsounding cymbals” consisted of two larger
plates, one held also in each hand (2 Sam. 6:5; Ps. 150:5;
1 Chr. 13:8; 15:16, 19, 28; 1 Cor. 13:1).
“hardness”), mentioned only in Isa. 44:14 (R.V.,
“holm tree”). The oldest Latin version translates
this word by ilex, i.e., the evergreen oak, which may
possibly have been the tree intended; but there is great
probability that our Authorized Version is correct in
rendering it “cypress.” This tree grows
abundantly on the mountains of Hermon. Its wood is hard and
fragrant, and very durable. Its foliage is dark and gloomy.
It is an evergreen (Cupressus sempervirens).
“Throughout the East it is used as a funereal tree;
and its dark, tall, waving plumes render it peculiarly
appropriate among the tombs.”
islands of the Mediterranean, about 148 miles long and 40
broad. It is distant about 60 miles from the Syrian coast.
It was the “Chittim” of the Old Testament (Num.
24:24). The Greek colonists gave it the name of Kypros,
from the cyprus, i.e., the henna (see CAMPHIRE
¯T0000701), which grew on this island. It was
originally inhabited by Phoenicians. In B.C. 477 it fell
under the dominion of the Greeks; and became a Roman
province B.C. 58. In ancient times it was a centre of great
commercial activity. Corn and wine and oil were produced
here in the greatest perfection. It was rich also in timber
and in mineral wealth.
It is first mentioned in the New Testament (Acts 4:36) as
the native place of Barnabas. It was the scene of
Paul’s first missionary labours (13:4-13), when he and
Barnabas and John Mark were sent forth by the church of
Antioch. It was afterwards visited by Barnabas and Mark
alone (15:39). Mnason, an “old disciple,” probaly
one of the converts of the day of Pentecost belonging to
this island, is mentioned (21:16). It is also mentioned in
connection with the voyages of Paul (Acts 21:3; 27:4).
After being under the Turks for three hundred years, it was
given up to the British Government in 1878.
Cyrene – a city (now Tripoli) in
Upper Libya, North Africa, founded by a colony of Greeks
(B.C. 630). It contained latterly a large number of Jews,
who were introduced into the city by Ptolemy, the son of
Lagus, because he thought they would contribute to the
security of the place. They increased in number and
influence; and we are thus prepared for the frequent
references to them in connection with the early history of
Christianity. Simon, who bore our Lord’s cross, was a
native of this place (Matt. 27:32; Mark 15:21). Jews from
Cyrene were in Jerusalem at Pentecost (Acts 2:10); and
Cyrenian Jews had a synagogue at Jerusalem (6:9). Converts
belonging to Cyrene contributed to the formation of the
first Gentile church at Antioch (11:20). Among “the
prophets and teachers” who “ministered to the
Lord at Antioch” was Lucius of Cyrene (13:1).
Cyrenius – the Grecized form of
Quirinus. His full name was Publius Sulpicius Quirinus.
Recent historical investigation has proved that Quirinus
was governor of Cilicia, which was annexed to Syria at the
time of our Lord’s birth. Cilicia, which he ruled,
being a province of Syria, he is called the governor, which
he was de jure, of Syria. Some ten years afterwards he was
appointed governor of Syria for the second time. During his
tenure of office, at the time of our Lord’s birth (Luke
2:2), a “taxing” (R.V., “enrolment;”
i.e., a registration) of the people was “first
made;” i.e., was made for the first time under his
government.
celebrated “King of Persia” (Elam) who was
conqueror of Babylon, and issued the decree of liberation
to the Jews (Ezra 1:1, 2). He was the son of Cambyses, the
prince of Persia, and was born about B.C. 599. In the year
B.C. 559 he became king of Persia, the kingdom of Media
being added to it partly by conquest. Cyrus was a great
military leader, bent on universal conquest. Babylon fell
before his army (B.C. 538) on the night of Belshazzar’s
feast (Dan. 5:30), and then the ancient dominion of Assyria
was also added to his empire (cf., “Go up, O
Elam”, Isa.21:2).
Hitherto the great kings of the earth had only oppressed
the Jews. Cyrus was to them as a “shepherd” (Isa.
44:28; 45:1). God employed him in doing service to his
ancient people. He may posibly have gained, through contact
with the Jews, some knowledge of their religion.
The “first year of Cyrus” (Ezra 1:1) is not the
year of his elevation to power over the Medes, nor over the
Persians, nor the year of the fall of Babylon, but the year
succeeding the two years during which “Darius the
Mede” was viceroy in Babylon after its fall. At this
time only (B.C. 536) Cyrus became actual king over
Palestine, which became a part of his Babylonian empire.
The edict of Cyrus for the rebuilding of Jerusalem marked a
great epoch in the history of the Jewish people (2 Chr.
36:22, 23; Ezra 1:1-4; 4:3; 5:13-17; 6:3-5).
This decree was discovered “at Achmetha [R.V. marg.,
“Ecbatana”], in the palace that is in the
province of the Medes” (Ezra 6:2). A chronicle drawn
up just after the conquest of Babylonia by Cyrus, gives the
history of the reign of Nabonidus (Nabunahid), the last
king of Babylon, and of the fall of the Babylonian empire.
In B.C. 538 there was a revolt in Southern Babylonia, while
the army of Cyrus entered the country from the north. In
June the Babylonian army was completely defeated at Opis,
and immediately afterwards Sippara opened its gates to the
conqueror. Gobryas (Ugbaru), the governor of Kurdistan, was
then sent to Babylon, which surrendered “without
fighting,” and the daily services in the temples
continued without a break. In October, Cyrus himself
arrived, and proclaimed a general amnesty, which was
communicated by Gobryas to “all the province of
Babylon,” of which he had been made governor.
Meanwhile, Nabonidus, who had concealed himself, was
captured, but treated honourably; and when his wife died,
Cambyses, the son of Cyrus, conducted the funeral. Cyrus
now assumed the title of “king of Babylon,”
claimed to be the descendant of the ancient kings, and made
rich offerings to the temples. At the same time he allowed
the foreign populations who had been deported to Babylonia
to return to their old homes, carrying with them the images
of their gods. Among these populations were the Jews, who,
as they had no images, took with them the sacred vessels of
the temple.
Daberath – pasture, a Levitical
town of Issachar (Josh. 19:12; 21:28), near the border of
Zebulum. It is the modern small village of Deburich, at the
base of Mount Tabor. Tradition has incorrectly made it the
scene of the miracle of the cure of the lunatic child
(Matt. 17:14).
Daemon – the Greek form, rendered
“devil” in the Authorized Version of the New
Testament. Daemons are spoken of as spiritual beings (Matt.
8:16; 10:1; 12:43-45) at enmity with God, and as having a
certain power over man (James 2:19; Rev. 16:14). They
recognize our Lord as the Son of God (Matt. 8:20; Luke
4:41). They belong to the number of those angels that
“kept not their first estate,” “unclean
spirits,” “fallen angels,” the angels of the
devil (Matt. 25:41; Rev. 12:7-9). They are the
“principalities and powers” against which we must
“wrestle” (Eph. 6:12).
with a devil.” In the days of our Lord and his
apostles, evil spirits, “daemons,” were
mysteriously permitted by God to exercise an influence both
over the souls and bodies of men, inflicting dumbness
(Matt. 9:32), blindness (12:22), epilepsy (Mark 9:17-27),
insanity (Matt. 8:28; Mark 5:1-5). Daemoniacs are
frequently distinguished from those who are afflicted with
ordinary bodily maladies (Mark 1:32; 16:17, 18; Luke 6:17,
18). The daemons speak in their own persons (Matt. 8:29;
Mark 1:23, 24; 5:7). This influence is clearly
distinguished from the ordinary power of corruption and of
temptation over men. In the daemoniac his personality seems
to be destroyed, and his actions, words, and even thoughts
to be overborne by the evil spirit (Mark, l.c.; Acts
19:15).
Dagon – little fish; diminutive
from dag = a fish, the fish-god; the national god of the
Philistines (Judg. 16:23). This idol had the body of a fish
with the head and hands of a man. It was an
Assyrio-Babylonian deity, the worship of which was
introduced among the Philistines through Chaldea. The most
famous of the temples of Dagon were at Gaza (Judg.
16:23-30) and Ashdod (1 Sam. 5:1-7).
or Beth-dagon, as elsewhere rendered (Josh.15: 41; 19:27),
was the sanctuary or temple of Dagon.
The Beth-dagon of Josh. 15:41 was one of the cities of the
tribe of Judah, in the lowland or plain which stretches
westward. It has not been identified.
The Beth-dagon of Josh. 19:27 was one of the border cities
of Asher.
That of 1 Chr. 10:10 was in the western half-tribe of
Manasseh, where the Philistines, after their victory at
Gilboa, placed Saul’s head in the temple of their god.
(Comp. 1 Sam. 31:8-13).
11:31; 12:11), a burnt offering of two lambs of a year old,
which were daily sacrificed in the name of the whole
Israelitish people upon the great altar, the first at dawn
of day, and the second at evening (Dan. 9:21), or more
correctly, “between the two evenings.”
of a valley, the alternative for “the valley of
Shaveh” (q.v.), near the Dead Sea, where the king of
Sodom met Abraham (Gen. 14:17). Some have identified it
with the southern part of the valley of Jehoshaphat, where
Absalom reared his family monument (2 Sam. 18:18).
Dalmanutha – a place on the west
of the Sea of Galilee, mentioned only in Mark 8:10. In the
parallel passage it is said that Christ came “into the
borders of Magdala” (Matt. 15:39). It is plain, then,
that Dalmanutha was near Magdala, which was probably the
Greek name of one of the many Migdols (i.e., watch-towers)
on the western side of the lake of Gennesaret. It has been
identified in the ruins of a village about a mile from
Magdala, in the little open valley of ‘Ain-el-Barideh,
“the cold fountain,” called el-Mejdel, possibly
the “Migdal-el” of Josh. 19:38.
Dalmatia – a mountainous country
on the eastern shore of the Adriatic, a part of the Roman
province of Illyricum. It still bears its ancient name.
During Paul’s second imprisonment at Rome, Titus left
him to visit Dalmatia (2 Tim. 4:10) for some unknown
purpose. Paul had himself formerly preached in that region
(Rom. 15:19).
The present Emperor of Austria bears, among his other
titles, that of “King of Dalmatia.”
Damaris – a heifer, an Athenian
woman converted to Christianity under the preaching of Paul
(Acts 17:34). Some have supposed that she may have been the
wife of Dionysius the Areopagite.
ancient of Oriental cities; the capital of Syria (Isa. 7:8;
17:3); situated about 133 miles to the north of Jerusalem.
Its modern name is Esh-Sham; i.e., “the
East.”
The situation of this city is said to be the most beautiful
of all Western Asia. It is mentioned among the conquests of
the Egyptian king Thothmes III. (B.C. 1500), and in the
Amarna tablets (B.C. 1400).
It is first mentioned in Scripture in connection with
Abraham’s victory over the confederate kings under
Chedorlaomer (Gen. 14:15). It was the native place of
Abraham’s steward (15:2). It is not again noticed till
the time of David, when “the Syrians of Damascus came
to succour Hadadezer” (q.v.), 2 Sam. 8:5; 1 Chr. 18:5.
In the reign of Solomon, Rezon became leader of a band who
revolted from Hadadezer (1 Kings 11:23), and betaking
themselves to Damascus, settled there and made their leader
king. There was a long war, with varying success, between
the Israelites and Syrians, who at a later period became
allies of Israel against Judah (2 Kings 15:37).
The Syrians were at length subdued by the Assyrians, the
city of Damascus was taken and destroyed, and the
inhabitants carried captive into Assyria (2 Kings 16:7-9;
comp. Isa. 7:8). In this, prophecy was fulfilled (Isa.
17:1; Amos 1:4; Jer. 49:24). The kingdom of Syria remained
a province of Assyria till the capture of Nineveh by the
Medes (B.C. 625), when it fell under the conquerors. After
passing through various vicissitudes, Syria was invaded by
the Romans (B.C. 64), and Damascus became the seat of the
government of the province. In A.D. 37 Aretas, the king of
Arabia, became master of Damascus, having driven back Herod
Antipas.
This city is memorable as the scene of Saul’s
conversion (Acts 9:1-25). The street called
“Straight,” in which Judas lived, in whose house
Saul was found by Ananias, is known by the name Sultany, or
“Queen’s Street.” It is the principal street
of the city. Paul visited Damascus again on his return from
Arabia (Gal. 1:16, 17). Christianity was planted here as a
centre (Acts 9:20), from which it spread to the surrounding
regions.
In A.D. 634 Damascus was conquered by the growing
Mohammedan power. In A.D. 1516 it fell under the dominion
of the Turks, its present rulers. It is now the largest
city in Asiatic Turkey. Christianity has again found a firm
footing within its walls.
Damnation – in Rom. 13:2, means
“condemnation,” which comes on those who
withstand God’s ordinance of magistracy. This sentence
of condemnation comes not from the magistrate, but from
God, whose authority is thus resisted.
In 1 Cor. 11:29 (R.V., “judgment”) this word
means condemnation, in the sense of exposure to severe
temporal judgements from God, as the following verse
explains.
In Rom. 14:23 the word “damned” means
“condemned” by one’s own conscience, as well
as by the Word of God. The apostle shows here that many
things which are lawful are not expedient; and that in
using our Christian liberty the question should not simply
be, Is this course I follow lawful? but also, Can I follow
it without doing injury to the spiritual interests of a
brother in Christ? He that “doubteth”, i.e., is
not clear in his conscience as to “meats”, will
violate his conscience “if he eat,” and in eating
is condemned; and thus one ought not so to use his liberty
as to lead one who is “weak” to bring upon
himself this condemnation.
Dan – a judge. (1.) The fifth son
of Jacob. His mother was Bilhah, Rachel’s maid (Gen.
30:6, “God hath judged me”, Heb. dananni). The
blessing pronounced on him by his father was, “Dan
shall judge his people” (49:16), probably in allusion
to the judgeship of Samson, who was of the tribe of
Dan.
The tribe of Dan had their place in the march through the
wilderness on the north side of the tabernacle (Num. 2:25,
31; 10:25). It was the last of the tribes to receive a
portion in the Land of Promise. Its position and extent are
described in Josh. 19:40-48.
The territory of Dan extended from the west of that of
Ephraim and Benjamin to the sea. It was a small territory,
but was very fertile. It included in it, among others, the
cities of Lydda, Ekron, and Joppa, which formed its
northern boundary. But this district was too limited.
“Squeezed into the narrow strip between the mountains
and the sea, its energies were great beyond its
numbers.” Being pressed by the Amorites and the
Philistines, whom they were unable to conquer, they longed
for a wider space. They accordingly sent out five spies
from two of their towns, who went north to the sources of
the Jordan, and brought back a favourable report regarding
that region. “Arise,” they said, “be not
slothful to go, and to possess the land,” for it is
“a place where there is no want of any thing that is
in the earth” (Judg. 18:10). On receiving this report,
600 Danites girded on their weapons of war, and taking with
them their wives and their children, marched to the foot of
Hermon, and fought against Leshem, and took it from the
Sidonians, and dwelt therein, and changed the name of the
conquered town to Dan (Josh. 19:47). This new city of Dan
became to them a new home, and was wont to be spoken of as
the northern limit of Palestine, the length of which came
to be denoted by the expression “from Dan to
Beersheba”, i.e., about 144 miles.
“But like Lot under a similar temptation, they seem to
have succumbed to the evil influences around them, and to
have sunk down into a condition of semi-heathenism from
which they never emerged. The mounds of ruins which mark
the site of the city show that it covered a considerable
extent of ground. But there remains no record of any noble
deed wrought by the degenerate tribe. Their name disappears
from the roll-book of the natural and the spiritual
Israel.”, Manning’s Those Holy Fields.
This old border city was originally called Laish. Its
modern name is Tell el-Kady, “Hill of the Judge.”
It stands about four miles below Caesarea Philippi, in the
midst of a region of surpassing richness and beauty.
(2.) This name occurs in Ezek 27:19, Authorize Version; but
the words there, “Dan also,” should be simply, as
in the Revised Version, “Vedan,” an Arabian city,
from which various kinds of merchandise were brought to
Tyre. Some suppose it to have been the city of Aden in
Arabia. (See MAHANEH-DAN ¯T0002375.)
Dance – found in Judg. 21:21, 23;
Ps. 30:11; 149:3; 150:4; Jer. 31:4, 13, etc., as the
translation of hul, which points to the whirling
motion of Oriental sacred dances. It is the rendering of a
word (rakad’) which means to skip or leap for joy, in
Eccl. 3:4; Job 21:11; Isa. 13:21, etc.
In the New Testament it is in like manner the translation
of different Greek words, circular motion (Luke 15:25);
leaping up and down in concert (Matt. 11:17), and by a
single person (Matt. 14:6).
It is spoken of as symbolical of rejoicing (Eccl. 3:4.
Comp. Ps. 30:11; Matt. 11: 17). The Hebrews had their
sacred dances expressive of joy and thanksgiving, when the
performers were usually females (Ex. 15:20; 1 Sam. 18:6).
The ancient dance was very different from that common among
Western nations. It was usually the part of the women only
(Ex. 15:20; Judg. 11:34; comp. 5:1). Hence the peculiarity
of David’s conduct in dancing before the ark of the
Lord (2 Sam. 6:14). The women took part in it with their
timbrels. Michal should, in accordance with the example of
Miriam and others, have herself led the female choir,
instead of keeping aloof on the occasion and “looking
through the window.” David led the choir
“uncovered”, i.e., wearing only the ephod or
linen tunic. He thought only of the honour of God, and
forgot himself.
From being reserved for occasions of religious worship and
festivity, it came gradually to be practised in common life
on occasions of rejoicing (Jer. 31:4). The sexes among the
Jews always danced separately. The daughter of Herodias
danced alone (Matt. 14:6).
judge of God. (1.) David’s second son, “born unto
him in Hebron, of Abigail the Carmelitess” (1 Chr.
3:1). He is called also Chileab (2 Sam. 3:3).
(2.) One of the four great prophets, although he is not
once spoken of in the Old Testament as a prophet. His life
and prophecies are recorded in the Book of Daniel. He was
descended from one of the noble families of Judah (Dan.
1:3), and was probably born in Jerusalem about B.C. 623,
during the reign of Josiah. At the first deportation of the
Jews by Nebuchadnezzar (the kingdom of Israel had come to
an end nearly a century before), or immediately after his
victory over the Egyptians at the second battle of
Carchemish, in the fourth year of the reign of Jehoiakim
(B.C. 606), Daniel and other three noble youths were
carried off to Babylon, along with part of the vessels of
the temple. There he was obliged to enter into the service
of the king of Babylon, and in accordance with the custom
of the age received the Chaldean name of Belteshazzar,
i.e., “prince of Bel,” or “Bel protect the
king!” His residence in Babylon was very probably in
the palace of Nebuchadnezzar, now identified with a mass of
shapeless mounds called the Kasr, on the right bank of the
river.
His training in the schools of the wise men in Babylon
(Dan. 1:4) was to fit him for service to the empire. He was
distinguished during this period for his piety and his
stict observance of the Mosaic law (1:8-16), and gained the
confidence and esteem of those who were over him. His habit
of attention gained during his education in Jerusalem
enabled him soon to master the wisdom and learning of the
Chaldeans, and even to excel his compeers.
At the close of his three years of discipline and training
in the royal schools, Daniel was distinguished for his
proficiency in the “wisdom” of his day, and was
brought out into public life. He soon became known for his
skill in the interpretation of dreams (1:17; 2:14), and
rose to the rank of governor of the province of Babylon,
and became “chief of the governors” (Chald.
Rab-signin) over all the wise men of Babylon. He made known
and also interpreted Nebuchadnezzar’s dream; and many
years afterwards, when he was now an old man, amid the
alarm and consternation of the terrible night of
Belshazzar’s impious feast, he was called in at the
instance of the queen-mother (perhaps Nitocris, the
daughter of Nebuchadnezzar) to interpret the mysterious
handwriting on the wall. He was rewarded with a purple robe
and elevation to the rank of “third ruler.” The
place of “second ruler” was held by Belshazzar as
associated with his father, Nabonidus, on the throne
(5:16). Daniel interpreted the handwriting, and “in
that night was Belshazzar the king of the Chaldeans
slain.”
After the taking of Babylon, Cyrus, who was now master of
all Asia from India to the Dardanelles, placed Darius
(q.v.), a Median prince, on the throne, during the two
years of whose reign Daniel held the office of first of the
“three presidents” of the empire, and was thus
practically at the head of affairs, no doubt interesting
himself in the prospects of the captive Jews (Dan. 9), whom
he had at last the happiness of seeing restored to their
own land, although he did not return with them, but
remained still in Babylon. His fidelity to God exposed him
to persecution, and he was cast into a den of lions, but
was miraculously delivered; after which Darius issued a
decree enjoining reverence for “the God of
Daniel” (6:26). He “prospered in the reign of
Darius, and in the reign of Cyrus the Persian,” whom
he probably greatly influenced in the matter of the decree
which put an end to the Captivity (B.C. 536).
He had a series of prophetic visions vouch-safed to him
which opened up the prospect of a glorious future for the
people of God, and must have imparted peace and gladness to
his spirit in his old age as he waited on at his post till
the “end of the days.” The time and circumstances
of his death are not recorded. He probably died at Susa,
about eighty-five years of age.
Ezekiel, with whom he was contemporary, mentions him as a
pattern of righteousness (14:14, 20) and wisdom (28:3).
Daniel, Book of – is ranked by
the Jews in that division of their Bible called the
Hagiographa (Heb. Khethubim). It consists of two distinct parts. The first
part, consisting of the first six chapters, is chiefly
historical; and the second part, consisting of the
remaining six chapters, is chiefly prophetical.
The historical part of the book treats of the period of the
Captivity. Daniel is “the historian of the Captivity,
the writer who alone furnishes any series of events for
that dark and dismal period during which the harp of Israel
hung on the trees that grew by the Euphrates. His narrative
may be said in general to intervene between Kings and
Chronicles on the one hand and Ezra on the other, or (more
strictly) to fill out the sketch which the author of the
Chronicles gives in a single verse in his last chapter:
‘And them that had escaped from the sword carried he
[i.e., Nebuchadnezzar] away to Babylon; where they were
servants to him and his sons until the reign of the kingdom
of Persia'” (2 Chr. 36:20).
The prophetical part consists of three visions and one
lengthened prophetical communication.
The genuineness of this book has been much disputed, but
the arguments in its favour fully establish its claims.
(1.) We have the testimony of Christ (Matt. 24:15; 25:31;
26:64) and his apostles (1 Cor. 6:2; 2 Thess. 2:3) for its
authority; and (2) the important testimony of Ezekiel
(14:14, 20; 28:3). (3.) The character and records of the
book are also entirely in harmony with the times and
circumstances in which the author lived. (4.) The
linguistic character of the book is, moreover, just such as
might be expected. Certain portions (Dan. 2:4; 7) are
written in the Chaldee language; and the portions written
in Hebrew are in a style and form having a close affinity
with the later books of the Old Testament, especially with
that of Ezra. The writer is familiar both with the Hebrew
and the Chaldee, passing from the one to the other just as
his subject required. This is in strict accordance with the
position of the author and of the people for whom his book
was written. That Daniel is the writer of this book is also
testified to in the book itself (7:1, 28; 8:2; 9:2; 10:1,
2; 12:4, 5).
Dan-jaan – woodland Dan, a place
probably somewhere in the direction of Dan, near the
sources of the Jordan (2 Sam. 24:6). The LXX. and the
Vulgate read “Dan-ja’ar”, i.e., “Dan in
the forest.”
Dannah – murmuring, a city (Josh.
15:49) in the mountains of Judah about 8 miles south-west
of Hebron.
Darda – pearl of wisdom, one of
the four who were noted for their wisdom, but whom Solomon
excelled (1 Kings 4:31).
Daric – in the Revised Version of
1 Chr. 29:7; Ezra 2:69; 8:27; Neh. 7:70-72, where the
Authorized Version has “dram.” It is the
rendering of the Hebrew darkemon and the Greek dareikos. It
was a gold coin, bearing the figure of a Persian King with
his crown and armed with bow and arrow. It was current
among the Jews after their return from Babylon, i.e., while
under the Persian domination. It weighed about 128 grains
troy, and was of the value of about one guinea or rather
more of our money. It is the first coin mentioned in
Scripture, and is the oldest that history makes known to
us.
Darius – the holder or supporter,
the name of several Persian kings. (1.) Darius the Mede
(Dan. 11:1), “the son of Ahasuerus, of the seed of the
Medes” (9:1). On the death of Belshazzar the Chaldean
he “received the kingdom” of Babylon as viceroy
from Cyrus. During his brief reign (B.C. 538-536) Daniel
was promoted to the highest dignity (Dan. 6:1, 2); but on
account of the malice of his enemies he was cast into the
den of lions. After his miraculous escape, a decree was
issued by Darius enjoining “reverence for the God of
Daniel” (6:26). This king was probably the
“Astyages” of the Greek historians. Nothing can,
however, be with certainty affirmed regarding him. Some are
of opinion that the name “Darius” is simply a
name of office, equivalent to “governor,” and
that the “Gobryas” of the inscriptions was the
person intended by the name.
(2.) Darius, king of Persia, was the son of Hystaspes, of
the royal family of the Achaemenidae. He did not
immediately succeed Cyrus on the throne. There were two
intermediate kings, viz., Cambyses (the Ahasuerus of Ezra),
the son of Cyrus, who reigned from B.C. 529-522, and was
succeeded by a usurper named Smerdis, who occupied the
throne only ten months, and was succeeded by this Darius
(B.C. 521-486). Smerdis was a Margian, and therefore had no
sympathy with Cyrus and Cambyses in the manner in which
they had treated the Jews. He issued a decree prohibiting
the restoration of the temple and of Jerusalem (Ezra
4:17-22). But soon after his death and the accession of
Darius, the Jews resumed their work, thinking that the
edict of Smerdis would be now null and void, as Darius was
in known harmony with the religious policy of Cyrus. The
enemies of the Jews lost no time in bringing the matter
under the notice of Darius, who caused search to be made
for the decree of Cyrus (q.v.). It was not found at
Babylon, but at Achmetha (Ezra 6:2); and Darius forthwith
issued a new decree, giving the Jews full liberty to
prosecute their work, at the same time requiring the Syrian
satrap and his subordinates to give them all needed help.
It was with the army of this king that the Greeks fought
the famous battle of Marathon (B.C. 490). During his reign
the Jews enjoyed much peace and prosperity. He was
succeeded by Ahasuerus, known to the Greeks as Xerxes, who
reigned for twenty-one years.
(3.) Darius the Persian (Neh. 12:22) was probably the
Darius II. (Ochus or Nothus) of profane history, the son of
Artaxerxes Longimanus, who was the son and successor of
Ahasuerus (Xerxes). There are some, however, who think that
the king here meant was Darius III. (Codomannus), the
antagonist of Alexander the Great (B.C. 336-331).
Darkness – The plague (the ninth)
of darkness in Egypt (Ex. 10:21) is described as darkness
“which may be felt.” It covered “all the
land of Egypt,” so that “they saw not one
another.” It did not extend to the land of Goshen
(ver. 23).
When Jesus hung upon the cross (Matt. 27:45; Luke 23:44),
from the “sixth hour there was darkness over all the
land unto the ninth hour.”
On Mount Sinai, Moses (Ex. 20:21) “drew near unto the
thick darkness where God was.” This was the
“thick cloud upon the mount” in which Jehovah was
when he spake unto Moses there. The Lord dwelt in the cloud
upon the mercy-seat (1 Kings 8:12), the cloud of glory.
When the psalmist (Ps. 97:2) describes the inscrutable
nature of God’s workings among the sons of men, he
says, “Clouds and darkness are round about him.”
God dwells in thick darkness.
Darkness (Isa. 13:9, 10; Matt. 24:29) also is a symbol of
the judgments that attend on the coming of the Lord. It is
a symbol of misery and adversity (Job 18:6; Ps. 107:10;
Isa. 8:22; Ezek. 30:18). The “day of darkness” in
Joel 2:2, caused by clouds of locusts, is a symbol of the
obscurity which overhangs all divine proceedings.
“Works of darkness” are impure actions (Eph.
5:11). “Outer darkness” refers to the darkness of
the streets in the East, which are never lighted up by any
public or private lamps after nightfall, in contrast with
the blaze of cheerful light in the house. It is also a
symbol of ignorance (Isa. 9:2; 60:2; Matt. 6:23) and of
death (Job 10:21; 17:13).
Darling – Ps. 22:20; 35:17) means
an “only one.”
Dart – an instrument of war; a
light spear. “Fiery darts” (Eph. 6:16) are so
called in allusion to the habit of discharging darts from
the bow while they are on fire or armed with some
combustible material. Arrows are compared to lightning
(Deut. 32:23, 42; Ps. 7:13; 120:4).
Date – the fruit of a species of
palm (q.v.), the Phoenix dactilifera. This was a common
tree in Palestine (Joel 1:12; Neh. 8:15). Palm branches
were carried by the Jews on festive occasions, and
especially at the feast of Tabernacles (Lev. 23:40; Neh.
8:15).
Dathan – welled; belonging to a
fountain, a son of Eliab, a Reubenite, who joined Korah
(q.v.) in his conspiracy, and with his accomplices was
swallowed up by an earthquake (Num. 16:1; 26:9; Deut. 11:6;
Ps. 106:17).
Daughter – This word, besides its
natural and proper sense, is used to designate, (1.) A
niece or any female descendant (Gen. 20:12; 24:48; 28:6).
(2.) Women as natives of a place, or as professing the
religion of a place; as, “the daughters of Zion”
(Isa. 3:16), “daughters of the Philistines” (2
Sam. 1:20). (3.) Small towns and villages lying around a
city are its “daughters,” as related to the
metropolis or mother city. Tyre is in this sense called the
daughter of Sidon (Isa. 23:12). (4.) The people of
Jerusalem are spoken of as “the daughters of
Zion” (Isa. 37:22). (5.) The daughters of a tree are
its boughs (Gen. 49:22). (6.) The “daughters of
music” (Eccl. 12:4) are singing women.
David – beloved, the eighth and
youngest son of Jesse, a citizen of Bethlehem. His father
seems to have been a man in humble life. His mother’s
name is not recorded. Some think she was the Nahash of 2
Sam. 17:25. As to his personal appearance, we only know
that he was red-haired, with beautiful eyes and a fair face
(1 Sam. 16:12; 17:42).
His early occupation was that of tending his father’s
sheep on the uplands of Judah. From what we know of his
after history, doubtless he frequently beguiled his time,
when thus engaged, with his shepherd’s flute, while he
drank in the many lessons taught him by the varied scenes
spread around him. His first recorded exploits were his
encounters with the wild beasts of the field. He mentions
that with his own unaided hand he slew a lion and also a
bear, when they came out against his flock, beating them to
death in open conflict with his club (1 Sam. 17:34, 35).
While David, in the freshness of ruddy youth, was thus
engaged with his flocks, Samuel paid an unexpected visit to
Bethlehem, having been guided thither by divine direction
(1 Sam. 16:1-13). There he offered up sacrifice, and called
the elders of Israel and Jesse’s family to the
sacrificial meal. Among all who appeared before him he
failed to discover the one he sought. David was sent for,
and the prophet immediately recognized him as the chosen of
God, chosen to succeed Saul, who was now departing from the
ways of God, on the throne of the kingdom. He accordingly,
in anticipation, poured on his head the anointing oil.
David went back again to his shepherd life, but “the
Spirit of the Lord came upon David from that day
forward,” and “the Spirit of the Lord departed
from Saul” (1 Sam. 16:13, 14).
Not long after this David was sent for to soothe with his
harp the troubled spirit of Saul, who suffered from a
strange melancholy dejection. He played before the king so
skilfully that Saul was greatly cheered, and began to
entertain great affection for the young shepherd. After
this he went home to Bethlehem. But he soon again came into
prominence. The armies of the Philistines and of Israel
were in battle array in the valley of Elah, some 16 miles
south-west of Bethlehem; and David was sent by his father
with provisions for his three brothers, who were then
fighting on the side of the king. On his arrival in the
camp of Israel, David (now about twenty years of age) was
made aware of the state of matters when the champion of the
Philistines, Goliath of Gath, came forth to defy Israel.
David took his sling, and with a well-trained aim threw a
stone “out of the brook,” which struck the
giant’s forehead, so that he fell senseless to the
ground. David then ran and slew him, and cut off his head
with his own sword (1 Sam. 17). The result was a great
victory to the Israelites, who pursued the Philistines to
the gates of Gath and Ekron.
David’s popularity consequent on this heroic exploit
awakened Saul’s jealousy (1 Sam. 18:6-16), which he
showed in various ways. He conceived a bitter hatred toward
him, and by various stratagems sought his death (1 Sam.
18-30). The deep-laid plots of the enraged king, who could
not fail to observe that David “prospered
exceedingly,” all proved futile, and only endeared the
young hero the more to the people, and very specially to
Jonathan, Saul’s son, between whom and David a
life-long warm friendship was formed.
A fugitive. To escape from the vengeance of Saul, David
fled to Ramah (1 Sam. 19:12-18) to Samuel, who received
him, and he dwelt among the sons of the prophets, who were
there under Samuel’s training. It is supposed by some
that the sixth, seventh, and eleventh Psalms were composed
by him at this time. This place was only 3 miles from the
residence of Saul, who soon discovered whither the fugitive
had gone, and tried ineffectually to bring him back.
Jonathan made a fruitless effort to bring his father to a
better state of mind toward David (1 Sam. 20), who, being
made aware of the fact, saw no hope of safety but in flight
to a distance. We accordingly find him first at Nob
(21:1-9) and then at Gath, the chief city of the
Philistines. The king of the Philistines would not admit
him into his service, as he expected that he would, and
David accordingly now betook himself to the stronghold of
Adullam (22:1-4; 1 Chr. 12:8-18). Here in a short time 400
men gathered around him and acknowledged him as their
leader. It was at this time that David, amid the harassment
and perils of his position, cried, “Oh that one would
give me drink of the water of the well of Bethlehem;”
when three of his heroes broke through the lines of the
Philistines and brought him the water for which he longed
(2 Sam. 23:13-17), but which he would not drink.
In his rage at the failure of all his efforts to seize
David, Saul gave orders for the massacre of the entire
priestly family at Nob, “persons who wore a linen
ephod”, to the number of eighty-five persons, who were
put to death by Doeg the Edomite. The sad tidings of the
massacre were brought to David by Abiathar, a son of
Ahimelech, the only one who escaped. Comp. Ps. 52.
Hearing that Keilah, a town on the western frontier, was
harassed by the Philistines, David with his men relieved it
(1 Sam. 23:1-14); and then, for fear of Saul, he fled to
the strongholds in the “hill country” of Judah.
Comp. Ps. 31. While encamped there, in the forest in the
district of Ziph, he was visited by Jonathan, who spoke to
him words of encouragement (23:16-18). The two now parted
never to meet again. Saul continued his pursuit of David,
who narrowly escaped from him at this time, and fled to the
crags and ravines of Engedi, on the western shore of the
Dead Sea (1 Sam. 23:29). Here Saul, who still pursued him
with his army, narrowly escaped, through the generous
forbearance of David, and was greatly affected by what
David had done for him. He returned home from pursuing him,
and David betook himself to Maon, where, with his 600 men,
he maintained himself by contributions gathered from the
district. Here occurred the incident connected with Nabal
and his wife Abigail (1 Sam. 25), whom David married after
Nabal’s death.
Saul again went forth (1 Sam. 26) in pursuit of David, who
had hid himself “in the hill Hachilah, which is before
Jeshimon,” in the wilderness of Ziph, and was a second
time spared through his forbearance. He returned home,
professing shame and penitence for the way in which he had
treated David, and predicting his elevation to the throne.
Fighting against Israel. Harassed by the necessity of
moving from place to place through fear of Saul, David once
more sought refuge among the Philistines (1 Sam. 27). He
was welcomed by the king, who assigned him Ziklag as his
residence. Here David lived among his followers for some
time as an independent chief engaged in frequent war with
the Amalekites and other tribes on the south of Judah.
Achish summoned David with his men to join his army against
Saul; but the lords of the Philistines were suspicious of
David’s loyalty, and therefore he was sent back to
Ziklag, which he found to his dismay may had been pillaged
and burnt during his brief absence. David pursued after the
raiders, the Amalekites, and completely routed them. On his
return to Ziklag tidings reached him of Saul’s death (2
Sam. 1). An Amalekite brought Saul’s crown and bracelet
and laid them at his feet. David and his men rent their
clothes and mourned for Saul, who had been defeated in
battle near Mount Gilboa. David composed a beautiful elegy,
the most beautiful of all extant Hebrew odes, a
“lamentation over Saul and over Jonathan his son”
(2 Sam. 1:18-27). It bore the title of “The Bow,”
and was to be taught to the children, that the memory of
Saul and Jonathan might be preserved among them.
“Behold, it is written in the book of Jasher”
(q.v.).
David king over Judah. David and his men now set out for
Hebron under divine direction (2 Sam. 2:1-4). There they
were cordially welcomed, and he was at once anointed as
king. He was now about thirty years of age.
But his title to the throne was not undisputed. Abner took
Ish-bosheth, Saul’s only remaining son, over the Jordan
to Mahanaim, and there crowned him as king. Then began a
civil war in Israel. The first encounter between the two
opposing armies, led on the one side by Abner, and on the
other by Joab, took place at the pool of Gibeon. It
resulted in the defeat of Abner. Other encounters, however,
between Israel and Judah followed (2 Sam. 3:1, 5), but
still success was on the side of David. For the space of
seven and a half years David reigned in Hebron. Abner now
sided with David, and sought to promote his advancement;
but was treacherously put to death by Joab in revenge for
his having slain his brother Asahel at Gibeon (3:22-39).
This was greatly to David’s regret. He mourned for the
death of Abner. Shortly after this Ish-bosheth was also
treacherously put to death by two Canaanites of Beeroth;
and there being now no rival, David was anointed king over
all Israel (4:1-12).
David king over all Israel (2 Sam. 5:1-5; 1 Chr. 11:1-3).
The elders of Israel now repaired to Hebron and offered
allegiance to David in name of all the people, among whom
the greatest enthusiasm prevailed. He was anointed king
over all Israel, and sought out a new seat of government,
more suitable than Hebron, as the capital of his empire. At
this time there was a Jebusite fortress, “the
stronghold”, on the hill of Zion, called also Jebus.
This David took from the Jebusites, and made it
Israel’s capital, and established here his residence,
and afterwards built for himself a palace by the aid of
Tyrian tradesmen. The Philistines, who had for some time
observed a kind of truce, now made war against David; but
were defeated in battle at a place afterwards called, in
remembrance of the victory, Baal-perazim. Again they
invaded the land, and were a second time routed by him. He
thus delivered Israel from their enemies.
David now resolved to bring up the ark of the covenant to
his new capital (2 Sam. 6). It was in the house of Abinadab
at Kirjath-jearim, about 7 miles from Jerusalem, where it
had been for many years, from the time when the Philistines
had sent it home (1 Sam. 6; 7). In consequence of the death
of Uzzah (for it was a divine ordinance that only the
Levites should handle the ark, Num. 4), who had put forth
his hand to steady the ark when the cart in which it was
being conveyed shook by reason of the roughness of the
road, David stayed the procession, and conveyed the ark
into the house of Obed-edom, a Philistine from Gath. After
three months David brought the ark from the house of
Obed-edom up to Jerusalem. Comp. Ps. 24. Here it was placed
in a new tent or tabernacle which David erected for the
purpose. About seventy years had passed since it had stood
in the tabernacle at Shiloh. The old tabernacle was now at
Gibeah, at which Zadok ministered. David now (1 Chr. 16)
carefully set in order all the ritual of divine worship at
Jerusalem, along with Abiathar the high priest. A new
religious era began. The service of praise was for the
first time introduced into public worship. Zion became
henceforth “God’s holy hill.”
David’s wars. David now entered on a series of
conquests which greatly extended and strengthened his
kingdom (2 Sam. 8). In a few years the whole territory from
the Euphrates to the river of Egypt, and from Gaza on the
west to Thapsacus on the east, was under his sway (2 Sam.
8:3-13; 10).
David’s fall. He had now reached the height of his
glory. He ruled over a vast empire, and his capital was
enriched with the spoils of many lands. But in the midst of
all this success he fell, and his character became stained
with the sin of adultery (2 Sam. 11:2-27). It has been
noted as characteristic of the Bible that while his
military triumphs are recorded in a few verses, the sad
story of his fall is given in detail, a story full of
warning, and therefore recorded. This crime, in the attempt
to conceal it, led to anoter. He was guilty of murder.
Uriah, whom he had foully wronged, an officer of the
Gibborim, the corps of heros (23:39), was, by his order,
“set in the front of the hottest battle” at the
siege of Rabbah, in order that he might be put to death.
Nathan the prophet (2 Sam. 7:1-17; 12:1-23) was sent by God
to bring home his crimes to the conscience of the guilty
monarch. He became a true penitent. He bitterly bewailed
his sins before God. The thirty-second and fifty-first
Psalms reveal the deep struggles of his soul, and his
spiritual recovery.
Bathsheba became his wife after Uriah’s death. Her
first-born son died, according to the word of the prophet.
She gave birth to a second son, whom David called Solomon,
and who ultimately succeeded him on the throne (2 Sam.
12:24, 25).
Peace. After the successful termination of all his wars,
David formed the idea of building a temple for the ark of
God. This he was not permitted to carry into execution,
because he had been a man of war. God, however, sent Nathan
to him with a gracious message (2 Sam. 7:1-16). On
receiving it he went into the sanctuary, the tent where the
ark was, and sat before the Lord, and poured out his heart
in words of devout thanksgiving (18-29). The building of
the temple was reserved for his son Solomon, who would be a
man of peace (1 Chr. 22:9; 28:3).
A cloudy evening. Hitherto David’s carrer had been one
of great prosperity and success. Now cloudy and dark days
came. His eldest son Amnon, whose mother was Ahinoam of
Jezreel, was guilty of a great and shameful crime (2 Sam.
13). This was the beginning of the disasters of his later
years. After two years Absalom terribly avenged the crime
against Tamar, and put Amnon to death. This brought sore
trouble to David’s heart. Absalom, afraid of the
consequences of his guilt, fled to Geshur beyond Jordan,
where he remained for three years, when he was brought back
through the intrigue of Joab (2 Sam. 14).
After this there fell upon the land the calamity of three
years’ famine (2 Sam. 21:1-14). This was soon after
followed by a pestilence, brought upon the land as a
punishment for David’s sinful pride in numbering the
people (2 Sam. 24), in which no fewer than 70,000 perished
in the space of three days.
Rebellion of Absalom. The personal respect for David was
sadly lowered by the incident of Bathsheba. There was a
strong popular sentiment against the taking of the census,
and the outburst of the plague in connection with it
deepened the feeling of jealously that had begun to
manifest itself among some of the tribes against David.
Absalom, taking full advantage of this state of things,
gradually gained over the people, and at length openly
rebelled against his father, and usurped the throne.
Ahithophel was Absalom’s chief counsellor. The revolt
began in Hebron, the capital of Judah. Absalom was there
proclaimed king. David was now in imminent danger, and he
left Jerusalem (2 Sam. 15:13-20), and once more became a
fugitive. It was a momentous day in Israel. The incidents
of it are recorded with a fulness of detail greater than of
any other day in Old Testament history. David fled with his
followers to Mahanarm, on the east of Jordan. An unnatural
civil war broke out. After a few weeks the rival armies
were mustered and organized. They met in hostile array at
the wood of Ephraim (2 Sam. 18:1-8). Absalom’s army was
defeated, and himself put to death by the hand of Joab
(9-18). The tidings of the death of his rebellious son
filled the heart of David with the most poignant grief. He
“went up to the chamber over the gate, and wept”
(33), giving utterance to the heart-broken cry, “Would
God I had died for thee, O Absalom, my son, my son!”
Peace was now restored, and David returned to Jerusalem and
resumed the direction of affairs. An unhappy dispute arose
between the men of Judah and the men of Israel (19:41-43).
Sheba, a Benjamite, headed a revolt of the men of Israel.
He was pursued to Abelbeth-maachah, and was there put to
death, and so the revolt came to an end.
The end. After the suppression of the rebellion of Absalom
and that of Sheba, ten comparatively peaceful years of
David’s life passed away. During those years he seems
to have been principally engaged in accumulating treasures
of every kind for the great temple at Jerusalem, which it
was reserved to his successor to build (1 Chr. 22; 28; 29),
a house which was to be “exceeding magnifical, of fame
and of glory throughout all countries” (22:5). The
exciting and laborious life he had spent, and the dangers
and trials through which he had passed, had left him an
enfeebled man, prematurely old. It became apparent that his
life was now drawing to its close. A new palace conspiracy
broke out as to who should be his successor. Joab favoured
Adonijah. The chiefs of his party met at the
“Fuller’s spring,” in the valley of Kidron,
to proclaim him king; but Nathan hastened on a decision on
the part of David in favour of Solomon, and so the aim of
Adonijah’s party failed. Solomon was brought to
Jerusalem, and was anointed king and seated on his
father’s throne (1 Kings 1:11-53). David’s last
words are a grand utterance, revealing his unfailing faith
in God, and his joyful confidence in his gracious covenant
promises (2 Sam. 23:1-7).
After a reign of forty years and six months (2 Sam. 5:5; 1
Chr. 3:4) David died (B.C. 1015) at the age of seventy
years, “and was buried in the city of David.” His
tomb is still pointed out on Mount Zion.
Both in his prophetical and in his regal character David
was a type of the Messiah (1 Sam. 16:13). The book of
Psalms commonly bears the title of the “Psalms of
David,” from the circumstance that he was the largest
contributor (about eighty psalms) to the collection.
“The greatness of David was felt when he was gone. He
had lived in harmony with both the priesthood and the
prophets; a sure sign that the spirit of his government had
been throughly loyal to the higher aims of the theocracy.
The nation had not been oppressed by him, but had been left
in the free enjoyment of its ancient liberties. As far as
his power went he had striven to act justly to all (2 Sam.
8:15). His weak indulgence to his sons, and his own great
sin besides, had been bitterly atoned, and were forgotten
at his death in the remembrance of his long-tried worth. He
had reigned thirty-three years in Jerusalem and seven and a
half at Hebron (2 Sam. 5:5). Israel at his accession had
reached the lowest point of national depression; its
new-born unity rudely dissolved; its territory assailed by
the Philistines. But he had left it an imperial power, with
dominions like those of Egypt or Assyria. The sceptre of
Solomon was already, before his father’s death, owned
from the Mediterranean to the Euphrates, and from the
Orontes to the Red Sea.”, Geikie’s Hours etc.,
iii.
David, City of – (1.) David took
from the Jebusites the fortress of Mount Zion. He
“dwelt in the fort, and called it the city of
David” (1 Chr. 11:7). This was the name afterwards
given to the castle and royal palace on Mount Zion, as
distinguished from Jerusalem generally (1 Kings 3:1; 8:1),
It was on the south-west side of Jerusalem, opposite the
temple mount, with which it was connected by a bridge over
the Tyropoeon valley.
(2) Bethlehem is called the “city of David” (Luke
2:4, 11), because it was David’s birth-place and early
home (1 Sam. 17:12).
Day – The Jews reckoned the day
from sunset to sunset (Lev. 23:32). It was originally
divided into three parts (Ps. 55:17). “The heat of the
day” (1 Sam. 11:11; Neh. 7:3) was at our nine
o’clock, and “the cool of the day” just
before sunset (Gen. 3:8). Before the Captivity the Jews
divided the night into three watches, (1) from sunset to
midnight (Lam. 2:19); (2) from midnight till the
cock-crowing (Judg. 7:19); and (3) from the cock-crowing
till sunrise (Ex. 14:24). In the New Testament the division
of the Greeks and Romans into four watches was adopted
(Mark 13:35).
The division of the day by hours is first mentioned in Dan.
3:6, 15; 4:19; 5:5. This mode of reckoning was borrowed
from the Chaldeans. The reckoning of twelve hours was from
sunrise to sunset, and accordingly the hours were of
variable length (John 11:9).
The word “day” sometimes signifies an indefinite
time (Gen. 2:4; Isa. 22:5; Heb. 3:8, etc.). In Job 3:1 it
denotes a birthday, and in Isa. 2:12, Acts 17:31, and 2
Tim. 1:18, the great day of final judgment.
length of a day’s journey in the East, on camel or
horseback, in six or eight hours, is about 25 or 30 miles.
The “three days’ journey” mentioned in Ex.
3:18 is simply a journey which would occupy three days in
going and returning.
Daysman – an umpire or arbiter or
judge (Job 9:33). This word is formed from the Latin diem
dicere, i.e., to fix a day for hearing a cause. Such an one
is empowered by mutual consent to decide the cause, and to
“lay his hand”, i.e., to impose his authority, on
both, and enforce his sentence.
1:78), the dawn of the morning; daybreak. (Comp. Isa. 60:1,
2; Mal. 4:2; Rev. 22:16.)
accompanies the sun-rising. It is found only in 2 Pet.
1:19, where it denotes the manifestation of Christ to the
soul, imparting spiritual light and comfort. He is the
“bright and morning star” of Rev. 2:28; 22:16.
(Comp. Num. 24:17.)
Deacon – Anglicized form of the
Greek word diaconos, meaning a “runner,”
“messenger,” “servant.” For a long
period a feeling of mutual jealousy had existed between the
“Hebrews,” or Jews proper, who spoke the sacred
language of palestine, and the “Hellenists,” or
Jews of the Grecian speech, who had adopted the Grecian
language, and read the Septuagint version of the Bible
instead of the Hebrew. This jealousy early appeared in the
Christian community. It was alleged by the Hellenists that
their widows were overlooked in the daily distribution of
alms. This spirit must be checked. The apostles accordingly
advised the disciples to look out for seven men of good
report, full of the Holy Ghost, and men of practical
wisdom, who should take entire charge of this distribution,
leaving them free to devote themselves entirely to the
spiritual functions of their office (Acts 6:1-6). This was
accordingly done. Seven men were chosen, who appear from
their names to have been Hellenists. The name
“deacon” is nowhere applied to them in the New
Testament; they are simply called “the seven”
(21:8). Their office was at first secular, but it
afterwards became also spiritual; for among other
qualifications they must also be “apt to teach”
(1 Tim. 3: 8-12). Both Philip and Stephen, who were of
“the seven,” preached; they did “the work of
evangelists.”
Phil. 4:2, 3; 1 Tim. 3:11; 5:9, 10; Titus 2:3, 4). In these
passages it is evident that females were then engaged in
various Christian ministrations. Pliny makes mention of
them also in his letter to Trajan (A.D. 110).
Greek writers of the second century to that inland sea
called in Scripture the “salt sea” (Gen. 14:3;
Num. 34:12), the “sea of the plain” (Deut. 3:17),
the “east sea” (Ezek. 47:18; Joel 2:20), and
simply “the sea” (Ezek. 47:8). The Arabs call it
Bahr Lut, i.e., the Sea of Lot. It lies about 16 miles in a
straight line to the east of Jerusalem. Its surface is
1,292 feet below the surface of the Mediterranean Sea. It
covers an area of about 300 square miles. Its depth varies
from 1,310 to 11 feet. From various phenomena that have
been observed, its bottom appears to be still subsiding. It
is about 53 miles long, and of an average breadth of 10
miles. It has no outlet, the great heat of that region
causing such rapid evaporation that its average depth,
notwithstanding the rivers that run into it (see JORDAN
¯T0002112), is maintained with little variation. The
Jordan alone discharges into it no less than six million
tons of water every twenty-four hours.
The waters of the Dead Sea contain 24.6 per cent. of
mineral salts, about seven times as much as in ordinary
sea-water; thus they are unusually buoyant. Chloride of
magnesium is most abundant; next to that chloride of sodium
(common salt). But terraces of alluvial deposits in the
deep valley of the Jordan show that formerly one great lake
extended from the Waters of Merom to the foot of the
watershed in the Arabah. The waters were then about 1,400
feet above the present level of the Dead Sea, or slightly
above that of the Mediterranean, and at that time were much
less salt.
Nothing living can exist in this sea. “The fish
carried down by the Jordan at once die, nor can even
mussels or corals live in it; but it is a fable that no
bird can fly over it, or that there are no living creatures
on its banks. Dr. Tristram found on the shores three kinds
of kingfishers, gulls, ducks, and grebes, which he says
live on the fish which enter the sea in shoals, and
presently die. He collected one hundred and eighteen
species of birds, some new to science, on the shores, or
swimming or flying over the waters. The cane-brakes which
fringe it at some parts are the homes of about forty
species of mammalia, several of them animals unknown in
England; and innumerable tropical or semi-tropical plants
perfume the atmosphere wherever fresh water can reach. The
climate is perfect and most delicious, and indeed there is
perhaps no place in the world where a sanatorium could be
established with so much prospect of benefit as at Ain Jidi
(Engedi).”, Geikie’s Hours, etc.
Dearth – a scarcity of provisions
(1 Kings 17). There were frequent dearths in Palestine. In
the days of Abram there was a “famine in the
land” (Gen. 12:10), so also in the days of Jacob
(47:4, 13). We read also of dearths in the time of the
judges (Ruth 1:1), and of the kings (2 Sam. 21:1; 1 Kings
18:2; 2 Kings 4:38; 8:1).
In New Testament times there was an extensive famine in
Palestine (Acts 11:28) in the fourth year of the reign of
the emperor Claudius (A.D. 44 and 45).
Death – may be simply defined as
the termination of life. It is represented under a variety
of aspects in Scripture: (1.) “The dust shall return
to the earth as it was” (Eccl. 12:7).
(2.) “Thou takest away their breath, they die”
(Ps. 104:29).
(3.) It is the dissolution of “our earthly house of
this tabernacle” (2 Cor. 5:1); the “putting off
this tabernacle” (2 Pet. 1:13, 14).
(4.) Being “unclothed” (2 Cor. 5:3, 4).
(5.) “Falling on sleep” (Ps. 76:5; Jer. 51:39;
Acts 13:36; 2 Pet. 3:9.
(6.) “I go whence I shall not return” (Job
10:21); “Make me to know mine end” (Ps. 39:4);
“to depart” (Phil. 1:23).
The grave is represented as “the gates of death”
(Job 38:17; Ps. 9:13; 107:18). The gloomy silence of the
grave is spoken of under the figure of the “shadow of
death” (Jer. 2:6).
Death is the effect of sin (Heb. 2:14), and not a
“debt of nature.” It is but once (9:27),
universal (Gen. 3:19), necessary (Luke 2:28-30). Jesus has
by his own death taken away its sting for all his followers
(1 Cor. 15:55-57).
There is a spiritual death in trespasses and sins, i.e.,
the death of the soul under the power of sin (Rom. 8:6;
Eph. 2:1, 3; Col. 2:13).
The “second death” (Rev. 2:11) is the everlasting
perdition of the wicked (Rev. 21:8), and “second”
in respect to natural or temporal death.
THE DEATH OF CHRIST is the procuring cause incidentally of
all the blessings men enjoy on earth. But specially it is
the procuring cause of the actual salvation of all his
people, together with all the means that lead thereto. It
does not make their salvation merely possible, but certain
(Matt. 18:11; Rom. 5:10; 2 Cor. 5:21; Gal. 1:4; 3:13; Eph.
1:7; 2:16; Rom. 8:32-35).
Debir – oracle town; sanctuary.
(1.) One of the eleven cities to the west of Hebron, in the
highlands of Judah (Josh. 15:49; Judg. 1:11-15). It was
originally one of the towns of the Anakim (Josh. 15:15),
and was also called Kirjath-sepher (q.v.) and
Kirjath-sannah (49). Caleb, who had conquered and taken
possession of the town and district of Hebron (Josh.
14:6-15), offered the hand of his daughter to any one who
would successfully lead a party against Debir. Othniel, his
younger brother (Judg. 1:13; 3:9), achieved the conquest,
and gained Achsah as his wife. She was not satisfied with
the portion her father gave her, and as she was proceeding
toward her new home, she “lighted from off her
ass” and said to him, “Give me a blessing [i.e.,
a dowry]: for thou hast given me a south land” (Josh.
15:19, A.V.); or, as in the Revised Version, “Thou
hast set me in the land of the south”, i.e., in the
Negeb, outside the rich valley of Hebron, in the dry and
barren land. “Give me also springs of water. And he
gave her the upper springs, and the nether
springs.”
Debir has been identified with the modern Edh-Dhaheriyeh,
i.e., “the well on the ridge”, to the south of
Hebron.
(2.) A place near the “valley of Achor” (Josh.
15:7), on the north boundary of Judah, between Jerusalem
and Jericho.
(3.) The king of Eglon, one of the five Canaanitish kings
who were hanged by Joshua (Josh. 10:3, 23) after the
victory at Gibeon. These kings fled and took refuge in a
cave at Makkedah. Here they were kept confined till Joshua
returned from the pursuit of their discomfited armies, when
he caused them to be brought forth, and “Joshua smote
them, and slew them, and hanged them on five trees”
(26).
Rebekah’s nurse. She accompanied her mistress when she
left her father’s house in Padan-aram to become the
wife of Isaac (Gen. 24:59). Many years afterwards she died
at Bethel, and was buried under the “oak of
weeping”, Allon-bachuth (35:8).
(2.) A prophetess, “wife” (woman?) of Lapidoth.
Jabin, the king of Hazor, had for twenty years held Israel
in degrading subjection. The spirit of patriotism seemed
crushed out of the nation. In this emergency Deborah roused
the people from their lethargy. Her fame spread far and
wide. She became a “mother in Israel” (Judg. 4:6,
14; 5:7), and “the children of Israel came up to her
for judgment” as she sat in her tent under the palm
tree “between Ramah and Bethel.” Preparations
were everywhere made by her direction for the great effort
to throw off the yoke of bondage. She summoned Barak from
Kadesh to take the command of 10,000 men of Zebulun and
Naphtali, and lead them to Mount Tabor on the plain of
Esdraelon at its north-east end. With his aid she organized
this army. She gave the signal for attack, and the Hebrew
host rushed down impetuously upon the army of Jabin, which
was commanded by Sisera, and gained a great and decisive
victory. The Canaanitish army almost wholly perished. That
was a great and ever-memorable day in Israel. In Judg. 5 is
given the grand triumphal ode, the “song of
Deborah,” which she wrote in grateful commemoration of
that great deliverance. (See LAPIDOTH ¯T0002240, JABIN
¯T0001938 [2].)
Debt – The Mosaic law encouraged
the practice of lending (Deut. 15:7; Ps. 37:26; Matt.
5:42); but it forbade the exaction of interest except from
foreigners. Usury was strongly condemned (Prov. 28:8; Ezek.
18:8, 13, 17; 22:12; Ps. 15:5). On the Sabbatical year all
pecuniary obligations were cancelled (Deut. 15:1-11). These
regulations prevented the accumulation of debt.
Debtor – Various regulations as
to the relation between debtor and creditor are laid down
in the Scriptures.
(1.) The debtor was to deliver up as a pledge to the
creditor what he could most easily dispense with (Deut.
24:10, 11).
(2.) A mill, or millstone, or upper garment, when given as
a pledge, could not be kept over night (Ex. 22:26, 27).
(3.) A debt could not be exacted during the Sabbatic year
(Deut. 15:1-15).
For other laws bearing on this relation see Lev. 25:14, 32,
39; Matt. 18:25, 34.
(4.) A surety was liable in the same way as the original
debtor (Prov. 11:15; 17:18).
Decalogue – the name given by the
Greek fathers to the ten commandments; “the ten
words,” as the original is more literally rendered
(Ex. 20:3-17). These commandments were at first written on
two stone slabs (31:18), which were broken by Moses
throwing them down on the ground (32:19). They were written
by God a second time (34:1). The decalogue is alluded to in
the New Testament five times (Matt. 5:17, 18, 19; Mark
10:19; Luke 18:20; Rom. 7:7, 8; 13:9; 1 Tim. 1:9, 10).
These commandments have been divided since the days of
Origen the Greek father, as they stand in the Confession of
all the Reformed Churches except the Lutheran. The division
adopted by Luther, and which has ever since been received
in the Lutheran Church, makes the first two commandments
one, and the third the second, and so on to the last, which
is divided into two. “Thou shalt not covet thy
neighbour’s house” being ranked as ninth, and
“Thou shalt not covet thy neighbour’s wife,”
etc., the tenth.
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